CONTENTS
Preface = xiii
Acknowledgments = xix
List of Abbreviations = xxi
1 Who Are These Speakers, Where Do They Come From, and How Did They Get to Be the Way They Are? = 1
1.1 Setting the Stage = 1
1.2 The Main Players = 9
1.2.1 Heritage Language Speakers = 9
1.2.2 Baseline Speakers = 10
1.2.3 Homeland Speakers = 13
1.3 Main Outcomes in Heritage Grammars = 17
1.3.1 Transfer from the Dominant Language = 18
1.3.2 Attrition = 22
1.3.3 Divergent Attainment = 24
1.4 Main Sources of Divergence in Heritage Grammars = 28
1.4.1 Amount and Type of Input = 29
1.4.2 Incipient Changes in the Input = 33
1.4.3 Resource Constraints = 35
1.4.4 Universal Principles of Language Structure = 36
2 Heritage English = 38
2.1 Prologue = 38
2.2 Heritage English : Historical Records = 43
2.3 Heritage English : Current Production Data = 46
2.3.1 Some Statistics = 47
2.3.2 Changes in Morphology = 49
2.3.3 Fillers = 50
2.3.4 Verb-Particle Combinations = 52
2.3.5 Relative Clauses = 58
2.3.6 What They Get Right = 60
2.4 Linguistic Properties of Heritage English : Comprehension Data = 65
2.4.1 Processing Limitations = 66
2.4.2 Beyond Processing Limitations = 69
2.5 Summary = 73
3 How to Study Heritage Speakers : Observations on Methodologies and Approaches = 76
3.1 General Remarks = 76
3.2 Methodological Considerations Specific to Heritage Populations = 78
3.2.1 Choice of Production Tasks = 78
3.2.2 The Production-Comprehension Divide = 86
3.2.3 Use of Grammaticality Judgment Tasks = 95
3.3 Assessment Methodologies = 101
3.3.1 Biographic and Demographic Questionnaires = 102
3.3.2 Linguistic Assessment of Heritage Speakers = 105
4 Phonetics and Phonology = 114
4.1 "Heritage Accent" = 116
4.2 Production in the Heritage Language : Segments = 123
4.3 Production in the Dominant Language : Segments = 138
4.4 Production : Tone, Stress, and Prosody = 147
4.5 Perception : Segmental Phonology = 153
4.6 Perception : Tone, Stress, and Prosody = 158
4.7 Summary = 162
5 Morphology and Morphosyntax = 164
5.1 The Fate of Paradigms = 165
5.1.1 Salience = 165
5.1.2 Overregularization and Overmarking = 173
5.1.3 Increased Analyticity = 183
5.2 Structural Indeterminacy and Ambiguity = 184
5.2.1 Production Data = 184
5.2.2 Restructuring of Featural Oppositions = 187
5.3 Morphology Encoding Relationships between Two Constituents = 197
5.3.1 Case Marking = 197
5.3.2 Agreement = 204
5.3.3 What About Isolating Languages? = 215
5.4 Summary = 219
6 Syntax = 222
6.1 Some Things Never Change? Parts of Speech = 223
6.2 A-Dependencies = 230
6.2.1 Unaccusativity = 230
6.2.2 Other A-Dependencies = 236
6.3 Beyond A-Dependency : Other Valency Alternations = 238
6.4 A-Bar Dependencies = 241
6.4.1 Relative Clauses : Production = 241
6.4.2 Relative Clauses : Comprehension = 244
6.4.3 Other A-Bar Dependencies = 248
6.5 The Silent Problem = 253
6.5.1 Referential Pronouns : General Remarks = 253
6.5.2 Referential Pronouns : An Example = 260
6.5.3 Bound Variables = 261
6.5.4 Ellipsis = 263
6.6 Binding = 270
6.7 Word Order = 273
6.7.1 General Considerations = 273
6.7.2 Ignore Morphology, Alter Your Word Order = 275
6.7.3 Discontinuous Relationships between Elements of Structure = 277
6.7.4 Germanic Languages in Contact : Changes in V2 = 281
6.8 Transfer Effects? = 286
6.9 Summary = 288
7 Semantics and Pragmatics = 291
7.1 Lexical Systems and Word Meaning = 292
7.2 Propositional Semantics = 298
7.2.1 Genericity, Specificity, Definiteness = 298
7.2.2 Scope = 304
7.3 Information Structure and Pragmatics = 310
7.3.1 Topic = 310
7.3.2 Focus = 316
7.4 Social Pragmatics = 323
7.5 Summary = 327
8 Heritage Languages and Their Speakers in Unexpected Places = 329
8.1 Preliminary Remarks = 329
8.2 Heritage Speakers among Endangered Language Speakers? = 333
8.2.1 Biographical Data = 333
8.2.2 Structural Signs of Endangerment = 334
8.2.3 Variation in Judgments = 345
8.3 Coping Strategies = 346
Conclusions = 349
References = 354
General Index = 405
Language Index = 408
