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CONTENTS
Acknowledgement = ⅸ
Preface = xi
PART Ⅰ : Conceptual Framework
 1. A Transactional Perspective = 3
  Characteristics of Adult Learning = 3
  The Transactional Perspective = 4
  Preliminary Remarks on Learning = 6
  Incongruent Practices in Education = 7
   Information addiction = 7
   Systemic factors = 8
  The Role of the Educator = 8
  Assumptions = 10
  Constructivism and Collaboration = 11
  Responsibility and Control = 13
  Critical Thinking and Self-Directed Learning = 14
  Conclusion = 15
 2. Foundations = 17
  John Dewey = 17
   Implications for adult and higher education = 23
  Carl Rogers = 24
   Implications for adult and higher education = 26
  Jurgen Habermas = 27
   Knowledge constitutive interests = 27
   Communicative competence = 29
   Implications for adult and higher education = 31
  Discussion = 34
   Responsibility and control = 36
  Conclusion = 37
 3. Learning Perspectives = 39
  Learning and Knowledge = 39
  Contrasting Learning Perspectives = 44
  Integrating Learning Perspectives = 46
   Social cognition = 47
   Developmental cognition = 48
   Socially shared cognition = 50
   Deep and surface cognition = 53
  Learning Style = 57
  Conclusion = 59
 4. Critical Thinking = 63
  Critical Thinking and Education = 63
  Critical Thinking Analysed = 65
  Problem Solving and Creative Thinking = 69
  A Model of Critical Thinking = 71
   Problem identification = 75
   Problem definition = 75
   Exploration = 76
   Applicability = 77
   Integration = 78
  Intuition and Insight = 80
   Intuition and insight in critical thinking = 83
   Intuition／insight and reason = 84
  Developing Critical Thinkers = 86
  Conclusion = 90
 5. Self-Directed Learning = 93
  Self-Directed Learning Assessed = 93
  A Comprehensive Model = 95
   Management = 95
   Monitoring = 97
   Motivation = 100
  A Transactional Perspective = 103
   Responsibility and control = 106
  Teaching and Motivation = 108
  Conclusion = 111
PART Ⅱ : Approaches and Strategies
 6. Approaches to Teaching = 115
  Research on Teaching = 116
  Beyond Presentations : Teaching for Higher-Order Outcomes = 120
   Outcome-process issues = 120
   The importance of assessment = 121
   Constructivist views of teaching = 122
   Collaborative teaching and learning = 126
  Towards Effective Teaching = 128
  Conclusion = 131
 7. Learning Activities = 133
  Student Learning Activities = 133
   Listening = 134
   Reading = 136
   Talking = 138
   Writing = 139
  Reflection = 142
  Conclusion = 143
 8. Teaching Strategies = 145
  Classroom Climate = 145
  First and Last Sessions = 147
  Presentations and Lectures = 149
  Reading Assignments = 152
  Critical Discussion = 155
  Writing Assignments = 157
  Conclusion = 160
 9. Assessment and Grading = 161
  Learning Assessment = 161
  Feedback = 165
   Listening = 166
   Reading = 166
   Talking = 166
   Writing = 167
   Self-assessment = 168
  Evaluation = 168
   Test design = 169
   Performance portfolios = 171
   Teaching evaluation = 172
  Conclusion = 172
 10. Distance Education, Design and Technology = 175
  A Definition = 175
  Examples of Distance Education = 176
  A Conceptual Framework for Distance Education = 177
  The Conceptual Framework Updated = 180
  The Role of Instructional Design in Education = 183
   Background = 183
  Emerging Paradigm = 185
  Designing Situated Learning = 187
  Design and Judgement = 189
  Educational Technology and Communication = 190
  Conclusion = 193
 11. A Systemic Perspective = 195
  Limits to Meaningful Learning = 195
  Teacher Development = 198
  Final Thoughts = 199
References = 201
Index = 215