Preface p. xv
1 Introduction p. 1
1.1 The study of second language acqusition p. 1
1.2 Definitions p. 6
1.3 The nature of language p. 8
1.3.1 Sound systems p. 8
1.3.2 Syntax p. 9
1.3.3 Morphology and the lexicon p. 11
1.3.4 Semantics p. 12
1.3.5 Pragmatics p. 13
1.4 The nature of nonnative speaker knowledge p. 14
1.5 Conclusion p. 14
Suggestions for additional reading p. 15
Points for discussion p. 15
2 Related disciplines p. 20
2.1 SLA and related disciplines p. 20
2.2 Third language acquisition/multilingualism p. 21
2.3 Heritage language acquisition p. 23
2.4 Bilingual acquisition p. 24
2.5 First language acquisition p. 30
2.5.1 Babbling p. 31
2.5.2 Words p. 32
2.5.3 Sounds and pronunciation p. 34
2.5.4 Syntax p. 35
2.5.5 Morphology p. 36
2.6 Conclusion p. 38
Suggestions for additional reading p. 38
Points for discussion p. 39
3 Second and foreign language data p. 41
3.1 Data analysis p. 41
3.1.1 Data set I: plurals p. 41
3.1.2 Data set II: verb + -ing markers p. 46
3.1.3 Data set III: prepositions p. 47
3.2 What data analysis does not reveal p. 50
3.3 Data collection p. 52
3.3.1 Eliciting speech samples p. 60
3.3.2 Eliciting reactions to data p. 63
3.3.3 Verbal report data p. 69
3.3.4 Measuring non-linguistic information p. 70
3.3.5 Measuring general proficiency: standardized language tests p. 71
3.4 Replication p. 72
3.5 Issues in data analysis p. 73
3.6 What is acquisition? p. 81
3.7 Conclusion p. 82
Suggestions for additional reading p. 82
Points for discussion p. 82
4 The role of the native language: an historical overview p. 89
4.1 Introduction p. 89
4.2 Behaviorism p. 90
4.2.1 Linguistic background p. 90
4.2.2 Psychological background p. 92
4.3 Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis p. 96
4.4 Error analysis p. 102
4.5 Conclusion p. 110
Suggestions for additional reading p. 110
Points for discussion p. 111
5 Recent perspectives on the role of previously known languages p. 121
5.1 Theories of learning p. 121
5.2 Child second language acquisition p. 123
5.3 Child second language morpheme order studies p. 126
5.4 Adult second language morpheme order studies p. 130
5.5 Revised perspectives on the role of the native language p. 136
5.5.1 Avoidance p. 138
5.5.2 Differential learning rates p. 139
5.5.3 Different paths p. 141
5.5.4 Overproduction p. 143
5.5.5 Predictability/selectivity p. 144
5.5.6 Second language processing p. 151
5.6 Interlanguage transfer p. 151
5.7 Conclusion p. 155
Suggestions for additional reading p. 155
Points for discussion p. 155
6 Formal approaches to SLA p. 159
6.1 Introduction p. 159
6.2 Universal Grammar p. 160
6.2.1 Initial state p. 163
6.2.2 UG principles p. 168
6.2.3 UG parameters p. 170
6.2.4 Falsification p. 174
6.3 Transfer: the UG perspective p. 176
6.3.1 Levels of representation p. 176
6.3.2 Clustering p. 177
6.3.3 Learnability p. 177
6.4 Phonology p. 178
6.4.1 Markedness Differential Hypothesis p. 179
6.4.2 Similarity/dissimilarity: Speech Learning Model p. 183
6.4.3 Optimality Theory p. 184
6.4.4 Ontogeny Phylogeny Model p. 186
6.5 Conclusion p. 189
Suggestions for additional reading p. 189
Points for discussion p. 190
7 Typological and functional approaches p. 191
7.1 Introduction p. 191
7.2 Typological universals p. 191
7.2.1 Test case I: the Accessibility Hierarchy p. 197
7.2.2 Test case II: the acquisition of questions p. 200
7.2.3 Test case III: voiced/voiceless consonants p. 202
7.2.4 Falsifiability p. 204
7.2.5 Typological universals: conclusions p. 205
7.3 Functional approaches p. 206
7.3.1 Tense and aspect: the Aspect Hypothesis p. 206
7.3.2 The Discourse Hypothesis p. 210
7.3.3 Concept-oriented approach p. 212
7.4 Conclusion p. 213
Suggestions for additional reading p. 213
Points for discussion p. 213
8 Looking at interlanguage processing p. 219
8.1 Introduction p. 219
8.2 Connectionist/emergentist models p. 219
8.3 Processing approaches p. 226
8.3.1 Processability Theory p. 227
8.3.2 Information processing: automaticity, restructuring, and U-shaped learning p. 230
8.3.3 Input Processing p. 238
8.4 Knowledge types p. 241
8.4.1 Acquisition-Learning p. 241
8.4.2 Declarative/procedural p. 242
8.4.3 Implicit/explicit p. 243
8.4.4 Representation and control p. 244
8.5 Interface of knowledge types p. 246
8.5.1 No interface p. 246
8.5.2 Weak interface p. 246
8.5.3 Strong interface p. 247
8.6 Psycholinguistic constructs p. 248
8.6.1 Attention p. 248
8.6.2 Working memory p. 250
8.6.3 Monitoring p. 253
8.7 Conclusion p. 255
Suggestions for additional reading p. 255
Points for discussion p. 255
9 Interlanguage in context p. 259
9.1 Introduction p. 259
9.2 Variation p. 259
9.3 Systematic variation p. 262
9.3.1 Linguistic context p. 263
9.3.2 Social context relating to the native language p. 266
9.3.3 Social context relating to interlocutor, task type, and conversational topic p. 268
9.4 Social interactional approaches p. 280
9.4.1 Conversation Analysis p. 281
9.4.2 Sociocultural theory p. 283
9.5 Communication strategies p. 285
9.6 Interlanguage pragmatics p. 287
9.7 Conclusion: SLA and other disciplines p. 293
Suggestions for additional reading p. 294
Points for discussion p. 294
10 Input, interaction, and output p. 304
10.1 Introduction p. 304
10.2 Input p. 304
10.3 Comprehension p. 310
10.4 Interaction p. 317
10.5 Output p. 325
10.5.1 Feedback p. 329
10.5.2 Hypothesis testing p. 341
10.5.3 Automaticity p. 345
10.5.4 Meaning-based to grammar-based processing p. 345
10.6 The role of input and interaction in language learning p. 346
10.6.1 Attention p. 355
10.6.2 Contrast theory p. 356
10.6.3 Metalinguistic awareness p. 359
10.7 Limitations of input p. 360
10.8 Conclusion p. 362
Suggestions for additional reading p. 362
Points for discussion p. 362
11 Instructed second language learning p. 368
11.1 Introduction p. 368
11.2 Classroom language p. 368
11.3 Processing instruction p. 372
11.4 Teachability/learnability p. 376
11.5 Focus on form p. 380
11.5.1 Timing p. 384
11.5.2 Forms to focus on p. 386
11.5.3 Input manipulation and input enhancement p. 387
11.6 Uniqueness of instruction p. 389
11.7 Effectiveness of instruction p. 390
11.8 Conclusion p. 392
Suggestions for additional reading p. 392
Points for discussion p. 393
12 Beyond the domain of language p. 395
12.1 Introduction p. 395
12.2 Research traditions p. 396
12.2.1 Linguistics p. 396
12.2.2 Psychology p. 397
12.2.3 Psycholinguistics p. 397
12.3 Affect p. 398
12.3.1 Language shock and culture shock p. 398
12.3.2 Anxiety p. 400
12.3.3 Affective Filter p. 402
12.4 Social distance p. 403
12.5 Age differences p. 405
12.6 Aptitude p. 417
12.7 Motivation p. 426
12.7.1 Motivations as a function of time and success p. 428
12.7.2 Changes over time p. 429
12.7.3 Influence of success on motivation and demotivation p. 429
12.8 Personality and learning style p. 432
12.8.1 Extroversion and introversion p. 433
12.8.2 Risk taking p. 433
12.8.3 Field independence/dependence p. 434
12.8.4 Visual/auditory/kinesthetic p. 437
12.8.5 Obtaining learning style information p. 437
12.9 Learning strategies p. 439
12.10 Conclusion p. 445
Suggestions for additional reading p. 445
Points for discussion p. 446
13 The lexicon p. 449
13.1 The significance of the lexicon p. 449
13.2 Categories of lexical knowledge: some dichotomies p. 451
13.2.1 Production and reception p. 451
13.2.2 Knowledge and control p. 453
13.2.3 Breadth and depth p. 454
13.3 Lexical knowledge, development, and influences p. 456
13.3.1 Subcategorization p. 456
13.3.2 Word associations and networks p. 457
13.3.3 Word formation p. 458
13.3.4 Word combinations, collocations, and phraseology p. 459
13.4 L1 influence p. 462
13.4.1 Incidental vocabulary learning p. 463
13.4.2 Incremental vocabulary learning p. 466
13.5 Using lexical skills p. 467
13.5.1 Production p. 467
13.5.2 Perception p. 472
13.6 Conclusion p. 475
Suggestions for additional reading p. 475
Points for discussion p. 475
14 An integrated view of second language acquisition p. 479
14.1 An integration of subareas p. 479
14.1.1 Apperceived input p. 482
14.1.2 Comprehended input p. 484
14.1.3 Intake p. 486
14.1.4 Integration p. 487
14.1.5 Output p. 490
14.2 Conclusion p. 491
Suggestions for additional reading p. 492
Points for discussion p. 493
Notes p. 505
Glossary p. 514
References p. 523
Author index p. 577
Subject index p. 583
