CONTENTS
List of Figures = xiii
List of Tables = xv
Preface = xxv
Acknowledgments = xvii
Ⅰ. A Theoretical Overview : The Organization and Its Ecosystem = 1
The Ecological Framework = 1
Population, Community, and Environment = 1
Selection, Increase, and the Distribution of Population Form = 2
Organizational Communities and Their Populations = 4
Environment and Selection = 5
Resources = 5
Internal and External Environments = 5
Productivity and the Unit Character of Organizational Communities = 5
Indirect Resources = 6
Productivity and Selection = 7
Population Specialization-Ceneralism = 8
Resource Spaces and Niches = 9
Resource Spaces = 9
Niches = 9
The Compositional and Temporal Uniformity of Resource Spaces = 10
Perturbed Resource Flows = 11
The Interdependence of Community and Environmental Change = 12
The Structure of organizational Communities = 12
Symbiosis and Commensalism = 13
The Division of Labor = 13
Production and Coordination = 16
Coordinating Populations = 17
Segmentation and Coordination = 20
Administrative Intensity = 20
Hierachy, Key Functions, and Dominance = 21
Functional Stratification and Organizational Protection = 22
Forms of Hierachy = 25
Sources of Hierarchial Form = 27
Hierarchy and Selection = 28
Propositions = 28
Community and Environment = 29
The Division of Labor = 29
Production and Coordination = 30
Hierarchy = 31
Ⅱ. The Study Design = 35
School Districts as Analytical Units = 35
A Macroevolutionary Approach = 40
Data and Measurement = 43
Data Sources = 44
Measurement = 45
On the Measurement of Vertical Differentiation = 56
Problems of Measurement = 61
Statistical Methods = 62
Inference from Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Evidence = 66
Ⅲ. Environment, Form, and Size : Cross - Sectional Evidence = 71
The External Environment and Resource Inputs = 72
Form, Size, and Externally Supplied Resources = 79
The Instructional Subunit : Theoretical Review = 79
The Instructional Subunit : Findings = 83
The Administrative Subumit : Theoretical Review = 97
The Administrative Subumit : Findings = 98
Subunit Size and Organizational Form = 107
Summary = 110
Environmental Correlates of Administrative Form and Size = 111
The Middle Administrative Stratum = 113
The Upper Administrative Stratum = 118
Conclusion = 132
Ⅳ. Environment, Form, and Increase : Longitudinal Evidence = 137
The Analytical Design = 137
The Instructional Subunit = 140
Specialization = 141
Increase and Segmentation = 145
Conspecificity = 160
Summary = 161
The Administrative Subunit = 166
Specialization = 168
Increase = 173
A Note on Causality and Spuriousness = 179
Segmentation = 181
Conspecificity = 183
Summary = 193
Size and the Division of Labor : Within-Subunit Relationships = 193
A Note on the Uniformity of Labor Input = 201
Conclusion = 203
Ⅴ. Vertical Differentiation and Hierarchy : Cross-Sectional Evidence = 209
Measuring Hierarchy = 210
Measurement Assumptions = 210
Ratio Variables = 212
Ecological and Demographic Approaches = 214
Levels of Administrative Activity = 218
Enrollment and Administrative Expenditures = 219
Comparing Administrative and All Production Activity = 233
Causal Analysis of Environmental Effects on Hierarchy = 238
Conclusion = 254
Ⅵ. Vertical Differentiation and Hierarchy : Longitudinal Evidence = 257
Longitudinal Trends = 258
Multivariate Findings = 265
Main Effects and Interactions : Growth and Decline = 265
The Dynamics of Activity Levels = 274
Conclusion = 281
Ⅶ. The Productivity of Organizational Communities : Determinants = 289
Theoretical Issues = 290
The Steps of the Analysis = 294
The Determinants of Productivity = 296
Measuring Productivity = 297
Controlling for Effects of Input on Output = 298
College Going : Input, Specialization, and Output = 299
Support and Revenues : Input, Specialization, Size, and Output = 309
Conclusion = 322
Ⅷ. The Productivity of Organizational Communities : Morphological and Demographic Consequences = 325
Feedback to Population Form and Size = 326
Feedback to the Hierarchy of Administrative Populations = 331
Productivity and Externally Transmitted Feedback = 338
Conclusion = 341
Ⅸ. Macroevolution and Interdependence : The Ecosystem Theory in Retrospect = 347
Review of Findings = 348
Change in the Division of Labor = 348
Population Increase = 349
Administrative Intensity = 349
Technological Diversity and Structural Differntiation = 350
Feedback from the External Environment = 351
The Evolving Division of Labor = 351
Selection and Attribute Building= 352
Protection and the Division of Labor = 352
Preferences, Politics, and Power = 354
Selection and Preference = 356
Summary = 359
Common Fate and Interdependence = 360
Hierarchy and Interdependence = 362
Appendix Ⅰ. Operationalization of Indicatiors = 365
Environmental Contexts = 365
Other Measures of Input = 368
The Instructional Subunit = 368
The Administractive Subunit = 369
Other Measures of Organizational Structures = 370
Outputs and Feedback from the Environment = 372
Professional Register Staff Assignment Categories = 372
Administrative Subunit : Coordinating COmponents = 372
Instructional Subunit = 373
Appendix Ⅱ. Expenditure Categories from Michigan State of Education, "Annual School District Financial Report for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1974" = 377
References = 381
Author Index = 387
Subject Index = 389
