CONTENTS
PREFACE = ⅷ
1 INTRODUCTION = 1
1.1. The Study of Second Language Acquisition = 1
1.2. Definitions = 4
1.3. The Nature of Language = 5
1.3.1. Sound Systems = 6
1.3.2. Syntax = 7
1.3.3. Morphology and the Lexicon = 9
1.3.4. Semantics = 10
1.3.5. Pragmatics = 11
1.4. The Nature of Nonnative Speaker Knowledge = 12
1.5. Conclusion = 12
Points for Discussion = 13
2 LOOKING AT INTERLANGUAGE DATA = 17
2.1. Data Analysis = 17
2.1.1. Data SetⅠ : Plurals = 18
2.1.2. Data SetⅡ : Verb + -ing Markers = 22
2.1.3. Data SetⅢ : Prepositions = 24
2.2. What Data Analysis Does Not Reveal = 26
2.3. Data Collection = 30
2.4. Data Elicitation = 37
2.4.1. Standardized Language Tests = 37
2.4.2. Tests From Psychology = 38
2.4.3. Language-Elicitation Measure = 40
2.5. Replication = 48
2.6. Issues in Data Analysis = 49
2.7. What Is Acquisition? = 58
2.8. Conclusion = 58
Points for Discussion = 59
3 THE ROLE OF THE NATIVE LANGUAGE : AN HISTORICAL OVERVIEW = 65
3.1. An Historical Perspective = 65
3.1.1. Psychological Background = 66
3..1.2. Linguistic Background = 68
3.2. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis = 72
3.3. Error Analysis = 78
3.4. Conclusion = 87
Points for Discussion = 87
4 CHILD LANGUAGE ACQUISITION : FIRST AND SECOND = 92
4.1. Child First Language Acquisition = 92
4.1.1. Babbling = 93
4.1.2. Words = 95
4.1.3. Sounds and Pronunciation = 96
4.1.4. Syntax = 96
4.1.5. Morphology = 98
4.2. Theories of Learning = 98
4.3. Child Second Language Acquisition = 100
4.4. Child Second Language Morpheme Order Studies = 104
4.5. Conclusion = 108
Points for Discussion = 108
5 RECENT PERSPECTIVES ON THE ROLE OF PREVIOUSLY KNOWN LANGUAGES = 112
5.1. Morpheme Order Studies = 112
5.2. Revised Perspectives on the Role of the Native Language = 117
5.2.1. Avoidance = 119
5.2.2. Differential Learning Rates = 120
5.2.3. Different Paths = 122
5.2.4. Overproduction = 125
5.2.5. Predictability／Selectivity = 126
5.3. Interlanguage Transfer = 132
5.4. Conclusion = 137
Points for Discussion = 137
6 SLA AND LINGUISTICS = 141
6.1. Language Universals = 142
6.2. Typological Universals = 144
6.2.1. Test CaseⅠ : The Accessibility Hierarchy = 145
6.2.2. Test CaseⅡ : The Acquisition of Questions = 149
6.2.3. Test CaseⅢ : Voiced／Voiceless Consonants = 151
6.2.4. Typological Universals : Conclusions = 154
6.3. Tense and Aspect = 155
6.3.1. The Aspect Hypothesis = 155
6.3.2. The Discourse Hypothesis = 158
6.4. Phonology = 159
6.5. Conclusion = 163
Points for Discussion = 164
7 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR = 168
7.1. Universal Grammar = 168
7.1.1. Initial State = 174
7.1.2. UG Principles = 179
7.1.3. UG Parameters = 180
7.1.4. Falsification : UG and Typological Universals = 183
7.2. Transfer : The UG Perspective = 185
7.2.1. Levels of Representation = 186
7.2.2. Clustering = 186
7.2.3. Learnability = 187
7.3. Minimalist Program = 188
7.4. Conclusion = 190
Points for Discussion = 191
8 LOOKING AT INTERLANGUAGE PROCESSES = 192
8.1. The Competition Model = 192
8.2. The Monitor Model = 198
8.2.1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis = 198
8.2.2. The Natural Order Hypothesis = 199
8.2.3. The Monitor Hypothesis = 199
8.2.4. The Input Hypothesis = 200
8.2.5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis = 201
8.3. Critiques of the Monitor Model = 202
8.3.1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis = 202
8.3.2. The Natural Order Hypothesis = 203
8.3.3. The Monitor Hypothesis = 204
8.3.4. The Input Hypothesis = 205
8.3.5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis = 205
8.4. Alternative Modes of Knowledge Representation = 206
8.4.1. The Nature of Knowledge Representation = 206
8.4.2. The Nature of Learning = 208
8.4.3. Automaticity and Restructuring = 209
8.5. Connectionism = 216
8.6. Conclusion = 217
Points for Discussion = 218
9 INTERLANGUAGE IN CONTEXT = 222
9.1. Variation = 222
9.2. Systematic Variation = 223
9.2.1. Linguistic Context = 223
9.2.2. Social Context Relating to the Native Language = 227
9.2.3. Social Context Relating to Interlocutor, Task Type, and Conversational Topic = 229
9.3. Communication Strategies = 241
9.4. Interlanguage Pragmatics = 243
9.5. Conclusion : SLA and Other Disciplines = 249
Points for Discussion = 251
10 INPUT, INTERACTION, AND OUTPUT = 259
10.1. Input = 259
10.2. Comprehension = 264
10.3. Interaction = 272
10.4. Output = 276
10.4.1. Hypothesis Testing = 279
10.4.2. Feedback = 282
10.4.3. Automaticity = 290
10.4.4. Meaning-Based to Grammatically Based Processing = 290
10.5. The Role of Input and Interaction in Language Learning = 291
10.5.1. Attention = 298
10.5.2. Contrast Theory = 300
10.5.3. Metalinguistic Awareness = 302
10.6. Limitations of Input = 303
10.7. Conclusion = 304
Points for Discussion = 305
11 INSTRUCTED SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING = 310
11.1. Classroom Language = 311
11.2. Input Processing = 315
11.3. Teachability／Learnability = 317
11.4. Focus on Form = 320
11.4.1. Timing = 323
11.4.2. Forms to Focus On = 325
11.5. Uniqueness of Instruction = 325
11.6. Conclusion = 326
Points for Discussion = 327
12 NONLANGUAGE INFLUENCES = 329
12.1. Research Traditions = 330
12.1.1. Linguistics = 330
12.1.2. Psychology = 331
12.1.3. Psycholinguistics = 332
12.2. Social Distance = 332
12.3. Age Differences = 335
12.4. Aptitude = 345
12.5. Motivation = 349
12.5.1. Motivation Over the Long Term and the Short Term = 354
12.5.2. Motivations as a Function of Success = 354
12.6. Anxiety = 357
12.7. Locus of Control = 358
12.8. Personality Factors = 359
12.8.1. Extroversion and Introversion = 360
12.8.2. Risk Taking = 361
12.8.3. Field Independence = 362
12.9. Learning Strategies = 364
12.10. Conclusion = 369
Points for Discussion = 370
13 THE LEXICON = 372
13.1. The Significance of the Lexicon = 372
13.2. Lexical Knowledge = 374
13.3. Lexical Information = 376
13.3.1. Word Associations = 378
13.3.2. Incidental Vocabulary Learning = 379
13.3.3. Incremental Vocabulary Learning = 381
13.3.4. Memory Metaphors = 381
13.4. Lexical Skills = 382
13.4.1. Production = 383
13.4.2. Perception = 387
13.4.3. Word Formation = 390
13.4.4. Word Combinations, Collocations, and Phraseology = 391
13.5. Conclusion = 393
Points for Discussion = 394
14 AN INTEGRATED VIEW OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION = 398
14.1. An Integration of Subareas = 398
14.1.1. Apperceived Input = 400
14.1.2. Comprehended Input = 403
14.1.3. Intake = 406
14.1.4. Integration = 407
14.1.5. Output = 410
14.2. Conclusion = 411
Points for Discussion = 413
REFERENCES = 415
GLOSSARY = 450
AUTHOR INDEX = 460
SUBJECT INDEX = 468
