CONTENTS
GENERAL INTRODUCTION = 1
PART ONE : Human Rights and the Universality Principle = 3
Ⅰ. Universality Concepts = 3
A. General and Would-wide Applicability of Human Rights : All-Inclusiveness = 4
B. Formal Acceptance = 5
C Historical Origin = 7
D. Formal Origin : Norm Creation = 8
E. Anthropological or Philosophical Acceptance = 9
F. Functional Acceptance = 10
G. Multicultural Composition of Human Rights = 10
H. World-wide Observance of Human Rights = 12
I. General Opposability of Human Rights = 12
J. Human Rights as a Legitimate Concern of the International Community = 13
K. Absence of Double Standards = 13
L. Priority of Human Rights = 14
M. Indivisibility of Human Rights = 14
N. Uniformity of Standards = 14
O. Universality in Time = 15
P Universality as a Process = 15
Q. Conclusion = 16
Ⅱ. Brief History of the Universality of Human Rights = 17
A. Before the Universal Declaration of Human Rights = 17
B. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Subsequent Evolution = 20
C. Relativism = 23
PART TWO : An Analysis of Non-Western Human Rights Claims = 27
Ⅰ. Introduction = 27
A. Purpose = 27
B. Selection of Material = 28
C. Approach = 31
Ⅱ. Asian Human Rights Claims = 33
A. Introduction = 33
B. Central Texts and Events = 35
1. The Singapore School = 36
1.1. Situation = 36
1.2. General Discourse = 36
1.3. The Economic Argument = 38
1.4. The Vulnerability Argument = 40
1.5. The Cultural Argument = 41
1.6. Good Government = 46
2. The Beijing White Papers = 50
2.1. "China's Practice of Human Rights" = 50
2.2. "China's Basic Position on Human Rights" = 51
3. The Bangkok Declaration and the Vienna Conference = 55
3.1. Situation = 55
3.2. The Bangkok Declaration = 56
3.2.1. Non-controversial Statements = 56
3.2.2. Controversial Statements = 57
3.3. The Vienna Conference = 59
3.3.1. Statements = 59
3.3.1.1. Singapore = 59
3.3.1.2. Malaysia = 61
3.3.1.3. China = 62
3.3.1.4. Indonesia = 63
3.3.1.5. Thailand = 64
3.3.1.6. Myanmar = 65
3.3.1.7. Philippines = 65
3.3.1.8. (South) Korea = 66
3.3.1.9. Japan = 66
3.3.2. The Vienna Declaration = 67
3.3.2.1. Sovereignty, Non-interference, Double Standards = 67
3.3.2.2. Universality and Indivisibility = 67
3.3.2.3. Development and Human Rights = 68
3.3.2.4. Parts of the debate Not Mentioned = 69
3.4. The Position of NGOs = 69
3.4.1. Situation = 69
3.4.2. Some Shared Concerns with the Governments = 70
3.4.2.1. Universality = 71
3.4.2.2. Indivisibility and Economic Concerns = 72
3.4.2.3. The Individual and the Community = 72
3.4.3. Some Points of Disagreement with the Governments = 72
3.4.3.1. The Sovereignty Argument = 73
3.4.3 2. The National Security Argument = 73
4. Kuala Lumpur Declaration on Human Rights = 75
4.1. Traditional Provisions = 75
4.2. "Asian" Provisions = 76
C. Interpretation = 80
1. Framework = 80
2. Main Claims = 83
2.1. International Politics = 84
2.2. Economics = 85
2.3. The Individual, the Community and the State = 86
2.4. Interpretation and Implementation = 87
3. Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights = 88
3.1. Universality and Respect for Diversity = 88
3.2. The Role of Culture = 89
Ⅲ. African Human Rights Views = 91
A. Introduction = 91
B. Central Texts and Events = 91
1. Legal and Political Texts = 91
1.1. The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights = 92
1.1.1. Universality and Specificity = 92
1.1.2. Peoples' Rights = 95
1.1.2.1. General Remarks = 95
a) Originality of the African Charter = 95
b) Justification = 96
c) Beneficiaries and Enforcement = 99
d) Peoples' Rights and Individual Rights = 100
1.1.2.2. Overview of the Articles = 101
a) Article 19 = 102
b) Article 20 = 102
c) Article 21 = 105
d) Article 22 = 106
e) Article 23 = 108
f) Article 24 = 108
1.1.3. Individual Duties = 109
1.1.3.1. General Remarks = 109
a) Originality of the African Charter = 109
b) Justification = 110
c) Beneficiaries and Enforcement = 112
d) Individual Duties and Individual Rights = 113
1.1.3.2. Overview of the Articles = 114
a) Article 27 = 114
b) Article 28 = 115
c) Article 29 = 115
1.1.4. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights = 118
1.1.5. Limitation and Derogation = 121
l.1.5.1. Limitation = 121
1.1.5.2. Derogation = 125
1.1.6. Choice and Formulation of Specific Rights = 126
1.1.6.1. Omission of Rights = 126
1.1.6.2. Inclusion and Formulation of Rights = 129
a) Article 18 = 129
b) Article 17(3) = 130
c) Article 7(2) in fine = 130
d) Article 13(1) = 131
e) Article 14 = 131
1.1.7 Enforcement Mechanism = 131
1.1.8 Reception of the Charter = 133
1.1.9 Evaluation = 135
1.2. The African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child = 137
1.2.1. Rights protected in both CRC and ACRWC = 138
1.2.2. Rights protected only in the ACRWC, not in the CRC = 142
1.2.3. Rights protected only in the CRC, not in the ACRWC = 144
1.2.4. Evaluation = 144
1.3. The Tunis Declaration = 148
2. Academic Texts = 151
2.1. Traditional Africa = 151
2.2. Universality = 156
2.3. Communalism = 162
2.4. Development and Human Rights = 163
2.4.1. Priority of Development over Human Rights = 164
2.4.2. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights = 165
2.4.3. Conditionality = 166
2.5. Stability = 167
2.6. Harmful Cultural Practices = 168
2.6.1. General Remarks = 168
2.6.2. The Example of Female Genital Mutilation = 170
2.6.2.1. The Practice = 170
2.6.2.2. The Western Campaign and the United Nations = 171
2.6.2.3. African Views = 175
C. Interpretation = 178
1. Framework = 178
2. Main Claims = 179
3. Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights = 180
3.1. Universality and Respect for Diversity = 180
3.2.The Role of Culture = 181
Ⅳ. Islam and Human Rights Views = 183
A. Introduction = 183
B. Central Texts and Events = 183
1. Academic Texts = 184
1.1 Fundamental Attitude : Different Tendencies = 184
1.1.1. Apologetic literature = 185
1.1.1.1. Common characteristics = 185
a) General = 185
b) Older and Better = 185
c) The Rights = 187
1.1.1.2. Subcategories = 191
a) Attitude to "Thorny Issues" = 191
b) Traditionalists and Fundamentalists = 191
1.1.2. Appeals for Interpretation = 192
1.1.2.1. Situating Ijtihad = 192
1.1.2.2 Common Characteristics = 193
1.1.2.3 Subcategories = 194
a) Moderate Muslim Proposals = 194
b) Radical Muslim Proposals = 196
c) Non-Muslim Western Authors = 199
1.1.3. Secularism = 199
1.2. Recurring Themes = 201
1.2.1. Universality = 201
1.2.1.1. Rejection of Universality = 201
1.2.1.2. Ambiguous Attitude Toward Universality in the Apologetic Discourse = 202
1.2.1.3. Attitude Toward Universality Among Liberal Muslims = 203
1.2.2. Individualism versus Communalism and Rights versus Duties = 204
1.2.2.1. The relationship Between the Two Themes = 204
1.2.2.2. Individualism v. Communalism = 204
a) Individualism and Communalism in Islam = 204
h) Consequences for Claims about Human Rights = 205
1.2.2.3. Rights v. Duties = 206
a) Rights and Duties in Islam = 206
b) Consequences for Claims about Human Rights = 207
1.2.3. The Religious Dimension = 207
1.2.4. Areas of Conflict Between Islam and International Human Rights = 208
1.2.4.1 Women's Rights = 208
1.2.4.2 Freedom of Religion = 209
a) The Problem = 209
b) Solving the Problem = 210
1.2.4.3 Discrimination on the Basis of Religion = 213
a) The Problem = 213
b) Denying or Minimising the Problem = 214
c) Solving the Problem = 215
1.2.4.4. Corporal Punishment = 216
a) The Problem : Hudud Crimes = 216
b) Solving the Problem = 217
1.2.4.5. Slavery = 219
1.2.4.6. Procedural Guarantees = 220
1.2.4.7. Democratic Rights = 221
1.2.4.8. Other = 222
1.3. A Specific Genre : The Debate on Women in Islam = 222
1.3.1. Fundamental Attitude : Different Tendencies = 223
1.3.1.1. Apologetic literature = 223
1.3.1.2. Feminists Appeals for Interpretation = 225
1.3.1.3. Secularism = 228
1.3.2. Recurring Themes = 228
1.3.2.1. The Principle of Equality = 229
1.3.2.2. Marriage = 230
a) Choice of a Husband = 231
b) Polygamy = 231
c) Authority of the Husband = 232
1.3.2.3. Divorce = 233
a) Obtaining a Divorce = 233
b) Custody = 234
c) Maintenance = 235
1.3.2.4. Inheritance = 236
1.3.2.5. Testimony = 237
1.3.2.6. Blood Money = 238
1.3.2.7. Freedom of Movement ／ Hijab = 238
1.3.2.8. Right to Work = 239
1.3.2.9. Political Rights ／ Access to Public Functions = 240
2. Islamic Declarations of Human Rights = 241
2.1. Universal Islamic Declaration of Human Rights = 242
2.1.1. Situation = 242
2.1.2. Universality versus Particularity = 243
2.1.2.1. Elements of Universality = 243
2.1.2.2. Elements of Islamic Particularity = 243
2.1.3. Individualism versus Communalism = 249
2.1.4. Rights versus Duties = 251
2.1.5. Restriction of Rights = 253
2.1.6. Thorny Issues = 254
2.1.6.1. Women = 254
2.1.6.2 Religion = 256
2.1.6.3. Other = 256
2.1.7. General Appreciation = 258
2.2. Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam = 259
2.2.1. Situation = 259
2.2.2. Universality versus Particularity = 259
2.2.3. Individualism versus Communalism = 261
2.2.4. Rights versus Duties = 262
2.2.5. Restriction of Rights = 262
2.2.6. Thorny Issues = 263
2.2.6.1. Women = 263
2.2.6.2. Religion = 264
2.2.6.3. Other = 265
2.2.7. General Appreciation = 266
3. Islamic Reservations to Human Rights Conventions = 267
3.1. General Remarks = 267
3.2. Reservations of a General Nature = 271
3.3. Specific Reservations = 274
3.3.1. In the ICCPR and the ICESCR = 274
3.3.2. In CEDAW = 275
3.3.3. In the CRC = 278
3.4. Evolution Over Time : Reservations as Statements in a Debate = 280
C. Interpretation = 285
1. Framework = 285
2. Main Claims = 286
3. Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights = 288
3.1. Universality and Respect for Diversity = 288
3.2. The Role of Culture = 290
Ⅴ. Some Common Conclusions = 291
A. Main Claims = 291
B. Attitude Towards the Universality of Human Rights = 292
C. Flexibility and Transformation = 292
PART THREE : Inclusive universality = 295
Ⅰ. Introduction = 295
Ⅱ. Upholding the Ideal of the Universality of Human Rights = 296
A. Unconditional Universality = 296
1.The Condition of General Formal Acceptance = 296
2. The Condition of Mixed Cultural Origin or Composition = 297
3. The Condition of Cross-Cultural Anthropological or Philosophical Foundations : of Mothers and Sisters = 300
3.1. Mother-notions = 300
3.2. Sister-notions = 302
3.3. Evaluation = 304
B. A Functional and Pragmatic Basis for Affirming Universality = 304
1. A Functional Basis = 305
1.1. The Universality of the Modern State = 305
1.2. Human Suffering = 306
2. A Pragmatic Basis = 307
Ⅲ. Necessary Consequences of the Universality of Human Rights : Toward Inclusive Universality = 308
A. General Formal Acceptance = 309
B. Participation in Norm Creation = 309
C. Absence of Double Standards = 310
D. General Opposability = 310
E. Indivisibility = 311
F. Cross-Cultural Acceptance in Anthropological and Philosophical Terms = 311
G. Accommodating Particularities = 314
1. Transformation of Human Rights Standards = 315
2. Flexibility of Human Rights Standards = 316
3. Limits to the Accommodation of Particularities = 318
3.1. Who Makes the Claim? = 318
3.2. Thick and Thin Accounts of Human Rights : Gross Violations = 320
3.3. Limits Inherent in the Concept of Inclusive Universality = 322
Ⅳ. Further Marking Out Inclusive Universality = 323
A. Methodological Implications = 323
B. Comparison With Other Concepts = 324
1. Minow's Relational and Contextual Approach = 324
2. Taylor and Habermas : Recognising Cultural Identities = 328
3 Kymlicka's Multiculturalism = 332
4. Donnelly's Weak Cultural Relativism = 335
Ⅴ. Summing Up = 338
PART FOUR : Legal Techniques for the Accommodation of Diversity = 341
Ⅰ. Introduction = 341
Ⅱ. Flexibility = 343
A. Forum and Focus = 343
B. Contextual Diversity in the Consideration of Human Rights Reports = 345
1. "Factors and "Difficulties" = 346
1.1. Types of Factors and Difficulties = 346
1.2. Impact on the Committee's Evaluation = 349
2. Progressive Realisation = 352
2.1. In the ICESCR = 352
2.2. In the CRC = 354
3. Conclusion = 355
C. Margin of Appreciation = 357
1. Focus on Europe = 357
2. The Margin of Appreciation Doctrine = 360
3. One Doctrine, Several Techniques = 364
3.1. Contextual Variations in the Balancing between Rights and Restriction Grounds = 365
3.1.1. The Principle of Balancing : Individual versus Community = 365
3.1.2. Balancing in Practice = 366
3.1.2.1. The Weight of the Individual Right = 366
a) The Importance of the Interest : Core Activities = 367
b) The Seriousness of the Interference : "Substance" or "Essence" Criteria = 368
3.1.2.2. The Weight of the Community Interest = 371
a) Choice from Among the Enumerated Interests in a Limitation Clause = 371
b) Policy Field = 373
Ⅰ. Better Position of the National Authorities = 374
Ⅱ. Economic and Social Policy = 376
Ⅲ. Sovereignty-related Policy Fields = 377
Ⅳ. Special Regimes = 378
3.1.3. Balancing on the World Level = 380
3.2. Contextual Variations in Solving Conflicts of Rights = 384
3.3. Contextual Factors as Mitigating Circumstances for Interferences = 387
3.3.1. Local Situations = 388
3.3.2. Exceptional Situations = 389
3.4. Organisational Latitude for the Concretisation of Rights in Different Contexts = 390
3.5. Contextual Variability in the Interpretation of Vague or General Notions = 393
3.5.1. Autonomous Interpretation = 394
3.5.2. Evolutive Interpretation = 396
3.5.3. Margin of Appreciation in the Interpretation of Vague or General Notions = 397
4. Margin of Appreciation Criteria and Inclusive Universality = 400
4.1. Democracy = 400
4.2. Effectiveness = 405
4.3. No "Gross Violations" = 407
4.3.1. Core Rights? = 408
4.3.2. The Core of a Right = 410
4.4. The Consensus Criterion = 411
4.4.1. The Consensus Criterion in the Case-law of the European Court of Human Rights = 412
4.4.1.1. Comparison in Balancing = 412
4.4.1.2. Comparison in Other Legal Techniques = 413
4.4.1.3. Reference to Other Conventions = 414
4.4.1.4. Internal Uncertainty or Dispute = 415
4.4.1.5. Consensus and Evolution = 416
4.4.2. The Consensus Criterion on the World Level = 418
4.4.2.1. Problematic Aspects of the Consensus Criterion in General = 419
4.4.2.2. Additional Problems on the World Level = 420
5. Conclusion = 421
Ⅲ. Transformation = 423
A. Introduction = 423
B. Duties = 424
1. Types of Duties = 424
2. Duties in International Human Rights Law = 425
2.1. Human Rights Texts on the Universal Level = 425
2.1.1. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights = 426
2.1.2. Other Texts = 427
2.2. Regional Human Rights Texts = 429
2.2.1. The European Convention on Human Rights = 429
2.2.2. The Americas = 430
2.2.3. The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights = 431
2.2.4. Asia = 431
3. More Duties? = 432
3.1. General Approach = 432
3.1.1. Potential Benefits of More Duties = 432
3.1.2. Avoiding Negative Effects of More Duties = 433
3.2. Concrete Proposals = 434
3.2.1. The Proposal of the InterAction Council = 434
3.2.1.1. The Text = 435
3.2.1.2. Evaluation = 438
3.2.2. The Proposal of Karel Vasak = 439
3.2.2.1. The Text = 439
3.2.2.2. Evaluation = 440
C. Economic and Social Rights and the Right to Development = 442
1. Present International Law = 442
1.1. Economic and Social Rights = 442
1.1.1. A Distinct Category of Rights = 442
1.1.2. Challenging the Categorization = 446
1.1.2.1. Positive and Negative Obligations = 446
1.1.2.2. Progressive or Immediate Realization = 447
1.1.2.3. Justiciability = 447
1.1.2.4. Recent Developments = 449
1.2. The Right to Development = 450
1.2.1. History and Legal Status = 450
1.2.2. Specifics of the Right to Development = 453
1.2.2.1. Subjects and Duty-Holders = 453
1.2.2.2. Substance = 454
2. Possible Changes = 457
2.1.Trade-offs = 457
2.2. Upgrading Economic and Social rights = 459
2.2.1. Balancing Human Rights Evaluations = 460
2.2.2. Strengthening Economic and Social Rights = 460
2.2.2.1. Developing the Normative Content of Economic and Social Rights = 462
a) Types of Obligations = 463
b) Core and Margin = 464
c) Types of Violations = 466
d) Responsibility, Victims, Response = 468
e) Reformulation = 468
2.2.2.2. Improving Control over the Implementation of Economic and Social Rights = 469
a) Indicators = 469
b) Violations = 470
2.3. Upgrading the Right to Development = 472
2.3.1. Balancing Human Rights Evaluations = 472
2.3.2. Strengthening the Right to Development = 473
2.3.2.1. Developing the Normative Content of the Right to Development = 473
2.3.2.2. Improving Control over the Implementation of the Right to Development = 474
D. Collective Human Rights = 476
1. Collective Rights in Present International Law = 476
1.1. "Nationalist" Collective Human Rights = 477
1.2. Other Collective Human Rights = 482
2. Perspectives from Inclusive Universality = 485
2.1. Basic Attitude = 485
2.1.1. Collective Rights as Human Rights = 485
2.1.2. Precautions = 488
2.2. Increasing Attention for Collective Human Rights = 491
2.2.1. More Collective Human Rights? = 491
2.2.2. Normative Development and Implementation Mechanism = 492
Ⅳ. Conclusion on Legal Techniques for the Accommodation of Diversity = 495
A. General Remarks = 495
B. Flexibility = 495
C. Transformation = 501
D. Toward Operationalisation = 506
GENERAL CONCLUSION = 509
Ⅰ. Two Central Problems = 509
Ⅱ. Deflating a Blown Up Debate = 509
Ⅲ. Promoting Inclusive Universality of Human Rights = 511
Ⅳ. Disarming Mala Fide Critics = 513
Ⅴ. Suggestions for Further Research = 514
BIBLIOGRAPHY = 517
INDEX = 561
