CONTENTS
Preface = xv
Chapter 1. Biomechanics as an Interdiscipline = 1
1.0 Introduction = 1
1.1 Measurement, Description, Analysis, and Assessment = 1
1.1.1 Measurement, Description, and Monitoring = 3
1.1.2 Analysis = 4
1.1.3 Assessment and Interpretation = 6
1.2 Biomechanics and Its Relationship with Physiology and Anatomy = 7
1.3 Scope of the Textbook = 8
1.3.1 Kinematics = 8
1.3.2 Kinetics = 9
1.3.3 Anthropometry = 9
1.3.4 Muscle and Joint Biomechanics = 9
1.3.5 Electromyography = 10
1.3.6 Synthesis of Human Movement = 10
Chapter 2. Kinematics = 11
2.0 Historical Development and Complexity of Problem = 11
2.1 Kinematic Conventions = 12
2.1.1 Absolute Spatial Reference System = 12
2.1.2 Total Description of a Body Segment in Space = 13
2.2 Direct Measurement Techniques = 14
2.2.1 Goniometers = 14
2.2.2 Accelerometers = 16
2.3 Imaging Measurement Techniques = 18
2.3.1 Review of Basic Lens Optics = 18
2.3.2 f-Stop Setting and Field of Focus = 19
2.3.3 Cinematography = 20
2.3.4 Television = 21
2.3.5 Multiple Exposures = 22
2.3.6 Optoelectric Techniques = 23
2.3.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Systems = 23
2.3.8 Summary of Various Kinematic Systems = 24
2.4 Data Conversion Techniques = 24
2.4.1 Analog-to-Digital Converters = 24
2.4.2 Movie Conversion Techniques = 25
2.4.3 Television Conversion = 26
2.5 Processing of Raw Kinematic Data = 27
2.5.1 Nature of Unprocessed Data = 27
2.5.2 Harmonic (Fourier) Analysis = 27
2.5.3 Sampling Theorem = 29
2.5.4 Signal versus Noise = 33
2.5.5 Smoothing and Fitting of Data = 36
2.5.6 Comparison of Some Smoothing Techniques = 43
2.6 Calculation of Angles from Smoothed Data = 45
2.6.1 Limb-Segment Angles = 45
2.6.2 Joint Angles = 46
2.7 Calculation of Velocity and Acceleration = 47
2.7.1 Velocity Calculation = 47
2.7.2 Acceleration Calculation = 47
2.8 Problems Based on Kinematic Data = 48
2.9 References = 50
Chapter 3. Anthropometry = 51
3.0 Scope of Anthropometry in Movement Biomechanics = 51
3.0.1 Segment Dimensions = 51
3.1 Density, Mass, and Inertial Properties = 52
3.1.1 Whole-Body Density = 52
3.1.2 Segment Densities = 53
3.1.3 Segment Mass and Center of Mass = 54
3.1.4 Center of Mass of a Multisegment System = 58
3.1.5 Mass Moment of Inertia and Radius of Gyration = 59
3.1.6 Parallel-Axis Theorem = 60
3.1.7 Use of Anthropometric Tables and Kinematic Data = 61
3.2 Direct Experimental Measures = 64
3.2.1 Location of the Anatomical Center of Mass of the Body = 64
3.2.2 Calculation of the Mass of a Distal Segment = 64
3.2.3 Moment of Inertia of a Distal Segment = 65
3.2.4 Joint Centers of Rotation = 67
3.3 Muscle Anthropometry = 68
3.3.1 Cross-Sectional Area of Muscles = 68
3.3.2 Change in Muscle Length during Movement = 69
3.3.3 Force per Unit Cross-Sectional Area (Stress) = 71
3.3.4 Mechanical Advantage of Muscle = 71
3.3.5 Multijoint Muscles = 71
3.4 Problems Based on Anthropometric Data = 72
3.5 References = 73
Chapter 4. Kinetics : Forces and Moments of Force = 75
4.0 Biomechanical Models = 75
4.0.1 Link-Segment Model Development = 75
4.0.2 Forces Acting on the Link-Segment Model = 77
4.0.3 Joins Reaction Forces and Bone-on-Bone Forces = 78
4.1 Basic Link-Segment Equations―The Free-Body Diagram = 80
4.2 Force Transducers and Force Plates = 84
4.2.1 Multidirectional Force Transducers = 85
4.2.2 Force Plates = 85
4.2.3 Synchronization of Force Plate and Kinematic Data = 89
4.2.4 Combined Force Plate and Kinematic Data = 89
4.2.5 Interpretation of Moment-of-Force Curves = 90
4.2.6 A Note About the Wrong Way to Analyze Moments of Force = 92
4.2.7 Differences Between Center of Gravity and Center of Pressure = 93
4.3 Bone-on-Bone Forces During Dynamic Conditions = 96
4.3.1 Indeterminacy in Muscle Force Estimates = 96
4.3.2 Example Problem = 97
4.4 Problems Based on Kinetic and Kinematic Data = 100
4.5 References = 102
Chapter 5. Mechanical Work, Energy, and Power = 103
5.0 Introduction = 103
5.0.1 Mechanical Energy and Work = 103
5.0.2 Law of Conservation of Energy = 104
5.0.3 Internal versus External Work = 105
5.1 Efficiency = 107
5.1.1 Positive Work of Muscles = 108
5.1.2 Negative Work of Muscles = 109
5.1.3 Muscle Mechanical Power = 110
5.1.4 Mechanical Work of Muscles = 110
5.1.5 Mechanical Work Done on an External Load = 111
5.1.6 Mechanical Energy Transfer Between Segments = 114
5.2 Causes of Inefficient Movement = 115
5.2.1 Cocontractions = 115
5.2.2 Isometric Contractions Against Gravity = 116
5.2.3 Generation of Energy at One Joint and Absorption at Another = 117
5.2.4 Jerky Movements = 118
5.2.5 Summary of Energy Flows = 118
5.3 Forms of Energy Storage = 119
5.3.1 Energy of a Body Segment and Exchanges of Energy within the Segment = 121
5.3.2 Total Energy of a Multisegment System = 124
5.4 Calculation of Internal and External Work = 125
5.4.1 Internal Work Calculation = 126
5.4.2 External Work Calculation = 129
5.5 Power Balances at Joints and Within Segments = 129
5.5.1 Energy Transfer via Muscles = 131
5.5.2 Power Balance Within Segments = 133
5.6 Problems Based on Kinetic and Kinematic Data = 135
5.7 References = 138
Chapter 6. Synthesis of Human Movement - Forward Solutions = 141
6.0 Introduction = 141
6.0.1 Assumptions and Constraints of Forward Solution Models = 142
6.0.2 Potential of Forward Solution Simulations = 142
6.1 Review of Forward Solution Models = 143
6.2 Mathematical Formulation = 144
6.2.1 Lagrange's Equations of Motion = 145
6.2.2 The Generalized Coordinates and Degrees of Freedom = 145
6.2.3 The Lagrangian Function L = 147
6.2.4 Generalized Forces[Q] = 147
6.2.5 Lagrange's Equations = 148
6.2.6 Points and Reference Systems = 148
6.2.7 Displacement and Velocity Vectors = 150
6.3 System Energy = 155
6.3.1 Segment Energy = 155
6.3.2 Spring Potential Energy and Dissipative Energy = 156
6.4 External Forces and Torques = 157
6.5 Designation of Joints = 157
6.6 Illustrative Example = 157
6.7 Conclusions = 162
6.8 References = 162
Chapter 7. Muscle Mechanics = 165
7.0 Introduction = 165
7.0.1 The Motor Unit = 105
7.0.2 Recruitment of Motor Units = 166
7.0.3 Size Principle = 167
7.0.4 Types of Motor Units - Fast- and Slow-Twitch Classifications = 169
7.0.5 The Muscle Twitch = 170
7.0.6 Shape of Graded Contractions = 171
7.1 Force-Length Characteristics of Muscles = 172
7.1.1 Force-Length Curve of the Contractile Element = 172
7.1.2 Influence of Parallel Connective Tissue = 173
7.1.3 Series Elastic Tissue = 174
7.1.4 In Vivo Force-Length Measures = 176
7.2 Force-Velocity Characteristics = 177
7.2.1 Concentric Contractions = 177
7.2.2 Eccentric Contractions = 178
7.2.3 Combination of Length and Velocity versus Force = 179
7.2.4 Combining Muscle Characteristics with Load Characteristics： Equilibrium = 180
7.3 Muscle Modeling = 183
7.3.1 Example Model-EMG Driven = 185
7.4 References = 188
Chapter 8. Kinesiological Electromyography = 191
8.0 Introduction = 191
8.1 Electrophysiology of Muscle Contraction = 191
8.1.1 Motor End Plate = 191
8.1.2 Sequence of Chemical Events Leading to a Twitch = 192
8.1.3 Generation of a Muscle Action Potential = 192
8.1.4 Duration of the Motor Unit Action Potential = 195
8.1.5 Detection of Motor Unit Recruitment from EMGs = 196
8.2 Recording of the EMG = 196
8.2.1 Amplifier Gain = 197
8.2.2 Input Impedance = 197
8.2.3 Frequency Response = 198
8.2.4 Common-Mode Rejection = 200
8.3 Processing of the EMG = 204
8.3.1 Full-Wave Rectification = 204
8.3.2 Linear Envelope = 204
8.3.3 True Mathematical Integrators = 206
8.4 Relationship Between EMG and Biomechanical Variables = 207
8.4.1 EMG versus Isometric Tension = 207
8.4.2 EMG During Muscle Shortening and Lengthening = 209
8.4.3 EMG Changes During Fatigue = 209
8.5 References = 210
APPENDICES
A. Kinematic, Kinetic, and Energy Data = 213
Figure A.1 Walking Trail―Marker Locations and Mass and Frame Rate Information = 213
Table A.1 Raw Coordinate Data = 214
Table A.2 (a) Filtered Marker Kinematics―Rib Cage and Greater Trochanter (Hip) = 218
Table A.2 (b) Filtered Marker Kinematics―Femoral Lateral Epicondyle (Knee) and Head of Fibula = 222
Table A.2 (c) Filtered Marker Kinematics―Lateral Malleolus (Ankle) and Heel = 226
Table A.2 (d) Filtered Marker Kinematics―Fifth Metatarsal and Toe = 230
Table A.3 (a) Linear and Angular Kinematics―Foot = 234
Table A.3 (b) Linear add Angular Kinematics―Leg = 238
Table A.3 (c) Linear and Angular Kinematics―Thigh = 242
Table A.3 (d) Linear and Angular Kinematics―1／2 HAT = 246
Table A.4 Relative Joint Angular Kinematics―Ankle, Knee, and Hip = 250
Table A.5 (a) Reaction Forces and Moments of Force―Ankle and Knee = 254
Table A.5 (b) Reaction Forces and Moments of Force―Hip = 258
Table A.6 Segment Potential, Kinetic and Total Energies―Foot, Leg, Thigh, and 1／2 HAT = 262
Table A.7 Power Generation／Absorption and Transfer―Ankle, Knee, and Hip = 266
B. Units and Definitions Related to Biomechanical and Electromyographical Measurements = 269
Table B.1 Base SI Units = 269
Table B.2 Derived SI Units = 269
INDEX = 275
