CONTENTS
From the Preface to the First Edition(1980) = xv
Preface to the Second Edition = xvii
Summary of the Book = xix
1. Values and Culture = 1
Summary of This Chapter = 1
Definitions and Distinctions = 1
Mental Programs = 1
Describing Mental Programs in Measurable Terms = 4
Values = 5
Measuring Values = 7
Culture = 9
National Cultures and Their Stability = 11
National Character and National Stereotypes = 13
Cultural Relativism = 15
Studying Culture = 15
Comparing Cultures : Changing the Level of Analysis = 15
Avoiding Ethnocentrism = 17
The Need for a Multidisciplinary Approach = 19
Language and Translation = 21
Matching Samples : Functional Equivalence = 23
Modal and Marginal Phenomena = 24
Dimensions of Culture = 24
The Specific and the General = 24
Searching for Dimensions of Culture = 26
Dimensions Versus Typologies = 28
Five Basic Problems of National Societies = 28
Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature : Theory Based = 29
Other Dimensions of Culture in the Literature : Empirical = 31
Culture Change = 34
The Process of Culture Change = 34
Culture Change and the IBM Data = 34
Notes = 36
2. Data Collection, Treatment, and Validation = 41
Summary of This Chapter = 41
The Research Settings = 41
The IBM Corporation = 41
The Use of Attitude Surveys in IBM = 43
Questionnaire Translation and Survey Administration = 46
The IBM Survey Database = 48
A Second Research Setting : IMEDE Business School = 49
Data Treatment = 49
Frequency Distributions and Central Tendency Within Groups = 49
ANOVA : Country, Occupation, Gender, and Age = 50
Comparing 40 Countries : Matching Occupations = 51
Extension to 50 Countries P1us Three Regions = 52
Selecting Stable Questions = 52
Eclectic Analysis : Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance = 53
Work Goal Importance Data : Eliminating Acquiescence = 56
Work Goal Importance : Ecological Factor Analysis = 58
Putting the Four Dimensions Together = 58
Value Shifts in IBM Between l967 - 69 and 1971 - 73 = 60
Correlations Between Index Scores = 60
Country Clusters = 62
Multilingual Countries : Belgium, Switzerland, and Yugoslavia = 63
Validation = 65
The Reliability of Country Dimension Scores = 65
Replicating the IBM Research = 66
Comparing With Data From Other Sources = 67
Economic, Geographic, and Demographic Indicators = 68
Adding a Fifth Dimension = 69
Studying Organizational Cultures = 71
Support and Criticisms of the Approach Followed = 73
Notes = 73
3.Power Distance = 79
Summary of This Chapter = 79
Inequality and Power Distance = 79
On Animal and Human Inequality = 79
Inequality in Society = 80
Inequality In Organizations = 82
The Concept of Power Distance = 83
Power Distance and Human Inequality = 84
Measuring National Differences in Power Distance in IBM = 84
Organization of Chapters 3 Through 7 = 84
A Power Distance Index for IBM Countries = 85
Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation = 88
Gender Differences in Power Distance = 90
Country Power Distance Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions = 90
Validating PDI Against Data From Other Sources = 91
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 91
PDI Versus Studies of General Values in Society = 92
Summary of General Connotations of the Power Distance Index Found in Survey Material = 96
Origins and Implications of Country Power Distance Differences = 97
The Power Distance Societal Norm = 97
Power Distance in the Family = 98
Power Distance, Schools, and Educational Systems = 100
Power Distance in Work and Organization = 102
Power Distance, Worker Participation, and "Industrial Democracy" = 106
Power Distance and Political Systems = 110
Power Distance and Religion, Ideology, and Theories of Power = 113
Power Distance and Aviation Safety = 115
Predictors of PDI : Latitude, Population Size, and Wealth = 115
Power Distance and Historical Factors : D'Iribarne's Contribution = 117
Power Distance and Historical Factors : The Roman Empire and Colonialism = 119
The Future of Power Distance Differences = 121
Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter = 123
Calculating the Power Distance Index by Country = 123
Power Distance Index Scores by Occupation = 125
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 126
Results of Other Survey Studies Significantly Correlated With PDI = 126
Indexes at the National Level Significantly Correlated With PDI = 128
PDI Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators = 132
Trends in PDI = 135
Notes = 137
4. Uncertainty Avoidance = 145
Summary of This Chapter = 145
The Concept of Uncertainty Avoidance = 145
Time, Future, Uncertainty, and Anxiety = 145
Uncertainty Avoidance in Organizations = 146
Uncertainty Avoidance Is Not the Same as Risk Avoidance = 148
Measuring National Differences in Uncertainty Avoidance in IBM = 148
An Uncertainty Avoidance Index for IBM Countries = 148
Uncertainty Avoidance Versus Power Distance = 150
Occupation and Gender Differences in the Scores on the Uncertainty Avoidance Items = 151
Country UAI Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions = 153
Validating UAI Against Data From Other Sources = 154
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 154
UAI, Anxiety, and Emotions : Studies by Lynn and Others = 155
UAI and Subjective Well-Being = 157
UAI Versus Studies of General Values in Society = 158
Summary of General Connotations of the Uncertainty Avoidance Index Found in Survey Material = 159
Origins and Implications of Country Uncertainty Avoidance Differences = 159
The Uncertainty Avoidance Societal Norm = 159
Uncertainty Avoidance in the Family = 161
Uncertainty Avoidance, Schools, and Educational Systems = 162
UAI and Achievement Motivation : McClelland's Data = 163
Uncertainty Avoidance in the Work Situation = 165
Uncertainty Avoidance and Consumer Behavior = 170
Uncertainty Avoidance and Political Systems = 171
Uncertainty Avoidance and Legislation = 174
Uncertainty Avoidance, Nationalism, and Xenophobia = 175
Uncertainty Avoidance and Religions = 176
Uncertainty Avoidance, Theories, and Games = 177
Predictors of UAI = 179
Uncertainty Avoidance and Historical Factors = 179
The Future of Uncertainty Avoidance Differences = 181
Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter = 183
Calculating the Uncertainty Avoidance Index by Country = 183
Calculating Differences in Item Scores by Occupation = 183
Country UAI, Average Age of Respondents, and Other IBM Survey Questions = 184
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 186
Studies of Stress and Well-Being = 188
McClelland's Study of Motivation = 190
Results of Other Surveys Correlated With UAI = 190
Indexes at the National Level Correlated With UAI = 197
UAI Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators = 198
Trends in UAI = 198
Notes = 199
5. Individualism and Collectivism = 209
Summary of This Chapter = 209
The Individual and the Collectivity = 209
Individualism in Society = 209
Individualism in Organizations and Organization Theories = 212
Measuring National Differences in Individualism in IBM = 214
An Individualism Index for Countries in the IBM Sample = 214
Societal Versus Individual Individualism and Collectivism, and Whether Ind and Col Are One or Two Dimensions = 215
Individualism Versus Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance = 216
Individualism and Occupation, Gender, and Age = 218
Country Individualism Index Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions = 218
Validating IDV Against Data From Other Sources = 219
Distinguishing IDV From PDI and GNP ／ Capita = 219
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 219
IDV Versus Schwartz's Values Surveys of Teachers and Students = 220
IDV Versus Smith and Dugan's Analysis of Trompenaars's Data = 221
IDV Versus Inglehart's Analysis of the World Values Survey = 223
IDV Scores and Other Studies of General Values = 224
Summary of Value Connotations of the Individualism Index Found in Surveys and Related Material = 225
Origins and Implications of Country Individualism Differences = 225
The Individualism Societal Norm = 225
Individualism and Collectivism in the Family = 225
Individualism and Collectivism Versus Personality and Behavior = 231
Individualism and Collectivism in Language Use and Group Identiry = 233
Individualism and Collectivism, Schools, and Educational Systems = 234
Individualism and Collectivism in the Work Situation = 235
Collectivism and the Applicability of Management Methods = 240
Individualism and Consumer Behavior = 241
Health and Disability in Individualist and Collectivist Societies = 242
Individualism or Collectivism, Political Systems, and Legislation = 243
Individualism and Collectivism, Religions, and Ideas = 249
Predictors of IDV : Wealth and Latitude = 250
Individualism and Historical Factors = 253
The Future of Individualism Differences = 254
Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter = 255
Calculating the Individualism Index by Country = 255
Work Goal Dimensions by Occupation = 257
Country IDV Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions = 258
Earlier Studies of Work Goals in IBM = 258
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 260
Results of Other Surveys Correlated With IDV = 264
Indexes at the National Level Correlated With IDV = 268
IDV Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators = 269
Trends in IDV = 272
Notes = 273
6. Masculinity and Femininity = 279
Summary of This Chapter = 279
Sexes, Genders, and Gender Roles = 279
Absolute, Statistical, and Social Sex Differences = 279
Gender Differences in Work Goals = 281
Measuring National Differences in Masculinity in IBM = 284
A Masculinity Index for Countries in the IBM Sample = 284
Masculinity and Occupation, Gender, and Age = 285
Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions = 290
MAS and Work Centrality in IBM = 291
Societal Versus Individual Masculinity and Femininity, and Whether Mas and Fem Are One or Two Dimensions = 292
Masculinity Versus Individualism = 293
Validating MAS Against Data From Other Sources = 294
The Need to Control for Wealth Differences = 294
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 295
MAS Scores Versus Other Values Surveys = 296
Summary of Connotations of the Masculinity Index Found in Surveys and Related Material = 297
Origins and Implications of Country Masculinity Differences = 297
The Masculinity Societal Norm = 297
Masculinity and Femininity in the Family = 298
Masculinity, Schools, and Educational Systems = 303
Masculinity and Femininity in Gender Roles = 305
Masculinity and Consumer Behavior = 310
Masculinity and Femininity in the Workplace = 311
Masculinity, Femininity, and Political Priorities = 317
Masculinity, Femininity, and Political Mores = 321
Masculinity and Sexual Behavior = 322
Masculinity, Femininity, and Religion = 327
Masculinity and Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Factors = 331
Masculinity and (Pre)Historical Factors = 331
The Future of Masculinity ／ Femininity Differences = 333
Statistical Analysis of Data Used in This Chapter = 335
Computing MAS for Old and New Cases = 335
Country MAS Scores and Other IBM Survey Questions = 335
Straight Replications of the IBM Survey = 335
Results of Other Studies Correlated With MAS = 337
MAS Versus Eight Geographic, Economic, and Demographic Indicators = 339
Trends in MAS = 340
Notes = 341
7. Long - Versus Short-Term Orientation = 351
Summary of This Chapter = 351
East Versus West = 351
Cultural Biases in the Researchers' Minds = 351
The Chinese Value Survey = 352
Long-Term Orientation as a Fifth Dimension = 353
Measuring and Validating National Differences in Long-Term Orientation = 355
A Long-Term Orientation Index for 23 Countries = 355
Replications of the Measurement of Long-Term Orientation = 355
Validating LTO Against Other Studies 0f Values = 355
LTO and Savings Rates : Read's Study = 358
Summary of Validations and Connotations of the Long-Term Orientation Index Found in Surveys and Related Material = 359
Implications of Country Long-Term Orientation Differences = 359
LTO and Family, Social Relationships, and Work = 359
LTO and Ways of Thinking = 362
LTO and Economic Growth = 365
Long - and Short-Term Orientation in the Hindu and Muslim Worlds = 368
African Values : A New Dimension = 369
The Future of Long - Term Orientation = 370
Notes = 370
8. Cultures in Organizations = 373
Summary of This Chapter = 373
Organizations and National Cultures = 373
There Are No Universal Solutions to Organization and Management Problems = 373
The Functioning of Organizations = 375
Culture and Organization Theories : Nationality Constrains Rationality = 378
Planning, Control, and Accounting = 381
Corporate Governance = 384
Motivation and Compensation = 385
Leadership and Empowerment = 388
Management Development and Organization Development = 390
Performance Appraisal and Management by Objectives = 391
Organizational Cultures = 391
The "Organizational Culture" Construct = 391
Differences Between Organizational and National Cultures = 393
The IRIC Organizational Culture Research Project = 395
Dimensions of Organizational Cultures = 397
Validating the Practice Dimensions = 400
Organizational Subcultures = 405
The Usefulness of the Organizational Culture Construct = 408
How Universal Are the Six Organizational Culture Dimensions? = 410
Individual Perceptions of Organizational Cultures = 411
Implications of the Level of Analysis : Gardens, Bouquets, and Flowers = 413
Occupational Cultures = 414
Notes = 415
9. Intercultural Encounters = 423
Summary of This Chapter = 423
Intercultural Communication and Cooperation = 423
General Principles = 423
Language and Discourse = 425
Culture Shock and Expatriate Failure = 425
Training in Intercultural Competence = 427
Political Issues = 429
Minorities, Migrants, and Refugees = 429
International Politics and International Organizations = 431
Intercultural Negotiations = 435
Economic Development, Nondevelopment, and Development Cooperation = 437
Multinational Business = 440
The Functioning of Multinational Business Organizations = 440
International Acquisitions, Mergers, and Joint Ventures = 445
International Marketing, Advertising, and Consumer Behavior = 448
Schools, Tourism, and a Look Ahead = 451
Intercultural Encounters in Schools = 451
Intercultural Encounters in Tourism = 452
The Influence of New Technology = 453
Cultural Relativism, Convergence, and Divergence = 453
Notes = 454
10. Using Culture Dimension Scores in Theory and Research = 461
Summary of This Chapter = 461
Applications of the Dimensional Model = 461
The Fortunes of Continued Research in Six Areas = 461
Fields of Application = 462
Replications and Their Pitfalls = 463
Extensions to New Countries = 464
Using the Dimensional Model as a Paradigm = 465
Closing Remarks = 466
Notes = 466
Appendixes
Appendix 1 Questions From the IBM Attitude Survey Questionnaire Referred to in This Book = 467
Appendix 2 Country Scores on A, B, and C Questions(except A5 - A32 and C1 - C8) = 475
Appendix 3 Standardized Country and Occupation Scores for Work Goals(questions A5 - l8 and C1 - C8) = 483
Appendix 4 Replicating the IBM-Style Cross-National Survey = 491
Appendix 5 Summary of Country Index Scores(including additions) = 499
Appendix 6 Summary of Significant Correlations of Country Index Scores With Data From Other Sources = 503
Appendix 7 Two Case Studies From the IRIC Organizational Cultures Research Project = 521
Appendix 8 The Author's Values = 523
References = 525
Name Index = 569
Subject Index = 585
About the Author = 596
