CONTENTS
Contributors = xi
Preface = xv
Acknowledgments = xvii
Ⅰ Introduction
1 Introduction to Cartography of the Brain / Arthur W. Toga ; John C. Mazziotta
Ⅰ. Introduction to Cartography = 3
Ⅱ. The Dimensions of a Brain Map = 6
Ⅲ. The Full Scope of Brain Mapping = 11
Ⅳ. Relationships to Other Biological Maps = 14
Ⅴ. Stereotaxy = 15
Ⅵ. Nomenclature = 17
Ⅶ. Detection Devices = 18
Ⅷ. Brain Maps : Content and Format = 21
Ⅸ. Summary = 25
References = 26
2 Time and Space / John C. Mazziotta
Ⅰ. Introduction = 33
Ⅱ. Critical Variables in Brain Mapping Techniques = 34
Ⅲ. The Concept of Resolution = 36
Ⅳ. Sampling = 40
Ⅴ. Sites Accessed = 43
Ⅵ. Invasiveness = 44
Ⅶ. Conclusions = 44
References = 45
Ⅱ Surface-Based Data Acquisition
3 Optical Imaging of Neural Structure and Physiology : Confocal Fluorescence Microscopy in Live Brain Slices / Michael E. Dailey
Ⅰ. Introduction = 49
Ⅱ. Live Brain Slice Preparation and Culture = 51
Ⅲ. Labeling Neuronal and Glial Cells in Brain Tissue Slices = 52
Ⅳ. Imaging Methodology = 57
Ⅴ. Application : Mapping Neural Structure and Physiology in Developing Brain Slices = 61
Ⅵ. Conclusions and Future Prospects = 71
References = 73
4 Voltage and Calcium Imaging of Brain Activity : Examples from the Turtle and the Mouse / Matt Wachowiak ; Chun X. Falk ; Lawrence B. Cohen ; Michal R. Zochowski
Ⅰ. Why (and Why Not) Voltage and Calcium Imaging = 77
Ⅱ. Signal Type = 78
Ⅲ. Dyes = 78
Ⅳ. Amplitude of the Voltage or Calcium Change = 81
Ⅴ. Noise in the Optical Measurements = 81
Ⅵ. Light Sources = 83
Ⅶ. Optics = 83
Ⅷ. Cameras = 84
Ⅸ. Comparison of Local Field Potential and Voltage-Sensitive Dye Recording = 85
Ⅹ. Voltage-Sensitive Dye Recording in the Turtle Olfactory Bulb = 85
XI. Calcium Dye Recording in the Mouse Olfactory Bulb = 89
XII. Intrinsic Imaging and Fluorescence Signals from In Vivo Mammalian Brain = 93
XIII. Summary and Future Directions = 93
References = 94
5 Optical Imaging Based on Intrinsic Signals / Nader Pouratian ; Arthur W. Toga
Ⅰ. Introduction = 97
Ⅱ. Sources of Intrinsic Signals and Wavelength Dependency = 98
Ⅲ. Preparation of an Animal for Optical Imaging = 103
Ⅳ. The Apparatus = 107
Ⅴ. Data Acquisition = 112
Ⅵ. Data Analysis for Mapping Functional Architecture = 114
Ⅶ. Chronic Optical Imaging = 121
Ⅷ. Optical Imaging of the Human Neocortex = 123
Ⅸ. Combining Optical Imaging with Other Techniques = 125
Ⅹ. Applications = 130
XI. Comparison of Intrinsic Optical Imaging with Other Imaging Techniques = 135
XII. Conclusions and Outlook = 136
References = 137
6 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Imaging / Arno Villringer ; Hellmuth Obrig
Ⅰ. Introduction = 141
Ⅱ. Optical Window for Noninvasive Studies = 142
Ⅲ. Other Optical Parameters Relevant for Near-Infrared Studies = 143
Ⅳ. Technical Approaches for Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Imaging = 143
Ⅴ. Physiological Parameters of NIRS Measurements = 144
Ⅵ. Near-Infrared Spectroscopy and Imaging : Applications = 149
Ⅶ. Practical Aspects of NIRS Measurements = 151
Ⅷ. Problems and Perspectives 155 References = 156
7 Dynamic Measurements of Local Cerebral Blood Flow : Examples from Rodent Whisker Barrel Cortex / Thomas A. Woolsey ; Ling Wei ; Joseph P. Erinjeri
Ⅰ. Why Measure Local Cerebral Blood Flow? = 159
Ⅱ. Function and Structural Contexts = 160
Ⅲ. Global Tracers = 161
Ⅳ. Volatile Tracers = 162
Ⅴ. Doppler Flowmetry = 163
Ⅵ. Video Microscopy = 163
Ⅶ. Localization of Activity Changes = 164
Ⅷ. Diameter = 165
Ⅸ. Intravascular Dyes = 166
Ⅹ. Intravascular Particles = 167
XI. Localization of Flow Changes = 169
XII. Conclusions and Prospects = 169
References = 170
8 Electrophysiological Imaging of Brain Function / Alan Gevins
Ⅰ. Introduction = 175
Ⅱ. The Electroencephalogram and Averaged Event-Related Potentials = 176
Ⅲ. Improving the Spatial Resolution of the Electroencephalogram = 179
Ⅳ. Analysis of Functional Networks = 183
Ⅴ. The EEG as a Monitoring (vs Imaging) Modality = 185
Ⅵ. Summary and Conclusions = 186
References = 186
9 Electrophysiological Methods for Mapp Brain Motor and Sensory Circuits / Paul D. Cheney
Ⅰ. Introduction and Historical Perspective
Ⅱ. Structural versus Functional Brain Maps = 191
Ⅲ. Strengths of Electrophysiological Mapping Methods Compared to Other Brain Mapping Methods = 191
Ⅳ. Contrasts between Sensory versus Motor System Mapping = 192
Ⅴ. Output Measures for Mapping Motor System Organization = 194
Ⅵ. Electrical Stimulation and Other Input Measures for Mapping Motor System Organization = 195
Ⅶ. Mapping Motor Output with Transcranial Stimulation of Cortex = 197
Ⅷ. Mapping Motor Output with Electrical Stimulation of the Cortical Surface = 205
Ⅸ. Mapping Motor Output with Intracortical Microstimulation (ICMS) = 209
Ⅹ. Mapping Motor Output with High-Density Microelectrode Arrays = 211
XI. Mapping Motor Output with Spike-Triggered Averaging of EMG Activity from Single Neurons = 213
XII. Mapping Motor Output with Stimulus-Triggered Averaging of EMG Activity (Single-Pulse ICMS) = 216
XIII. Comparison of Results from Spike-Triggered Averaging Stimulus-Triggered Averaging and Repetitive ICMS = 219
XIV. Mapping the Output Terminations of Single Neurons Electrophysiologically = 221
XV. The Future of Electrophysiological Mapping = 222
References = 223
10 Magnetoencephalographic Characterization of Dynamic Brain Activation : Basic Principles and Methods of Data Collection and Source Analysis / Matti H$$\ddot a$$m$$\ddot a$$l$$\ddot a$$inen ; Riitta Hari
Ⅰ. Introduction = 227
Ⅱ. Generation of Neuromagnetic Fields = 228
Ⅲ. Instrumentation and Data Acquisition = 233
Ⅳ. Source Analysis = 238
Ⅴ. Neuromagnetic Studies = 244
Ⅵ. Conclusions and Future Directions = 248
References = 250
11 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation / Alvaro Pascual-leone ; Vincent Walsh
Ⅰ. Introduction = 255
Ⅱ. Basic Principles of Magnetic Brain Stimulation = 256
Ⅲ. TMS in Clinical Neurophysiology = 263
Ⅳ. TMS in Cognitive Neuroscience = 270
Ⅴ. TMS Limitations = 279
References = 285
Ⅲ Tomographic-Based Data Acquisition
12 High-Field Magnetic Resonance / Kamil Ugurbil
Ⅰ. Introduction = 291
Ⅱ. Signal-to-Noise Ratio = 292
Ⅲ. Functional Brain Imaging = 293
Ⅳ. Spectroscopy at High Magnetic Fields = 306
References = 311
13 Functional MRI / Joseph B. Mandeville ; Bruce R. Rosen
Ⅰ. Introduction = 315
Ⅱ. MRI : A Brief Primer = 316
Ⅲ. From MRI to fMRI = 320
Ⅳ. Physics and Physiology = 322
Ⅴ. Sensitivity = 330
Ⅵ. Resolution = 336
Ⅶ. Structure-Function Integration = 343
Ⅷ. Future = 344
References = 344
14 Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging / Andrew A. Maudsley
Ⅰ. Introduction = 351
Ⅱ. Basics of in Vivo MR Spectroscopy = 352
Ⅲ. MRSI Data Acquisition Methods = 357
Ⅳ. Data Processing Methods = 361
Ⅴ. MRSJ Data Analysis = 366
Ⅵ. Applications = 371
Ⅶ. Emerging Technologies = 373
Ⅷ. Conclusion = 373
References = 374
15 Principles Methods and Applications of Diffusion Tensor Imaging / Susumu Mori
Ⅰ. Diffusion Measurement by NMR = 379
Ⅱ. Diffusion Tensor Imaging = 384
Ⅲ. Data Visualization and Analysis of DTI = 388
Ⅳ. Application Studies = 391
Ⅴ. Summary = 395
References = 395
16 Neuroanatomical Micromagnetic Resonance Imaging / P. T. Narasimhan ; Russell E. Jacobs
Ⅰ. introduction = 399
Ⅱ. Magnetic Resonance Basics = 400
Ⅲ. Magnetic Resonance Imaging Basics = 403
Ⅳ. k Space and MR Images = 405
Ⅴ. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) and Contrast-to-Noise Ratio (CNR) = 406
Ⅵ. T1- and T2-lnduced Contrasts = 407
Ⅶ. Diffusion-Weighted Perfusion and Water Displacement Imaging = 409
Ⅷ. Microscopic MRI = 411
Ⅸ. Micromagnetic Resonance Imaging of the Nervous System = 413
Ⅹ. Concluding Remarks = 419
References = 421
17 CT Angiography and CT Perfusion Imaging / M. H. lev ; R. G. Gonzalez
Ⅰ. Introduction = 427
Ⅱ. Technical Background = 431
Ⅲ. Scanning Protocols : Acquisition Postprocessing Analysis and Interpretation = 456
Ⅳ. Clinical Utility = 462
Ⅴ. Conclusions = 476
References = 478
18 Imaging Brain Function with Positron Emission Tomography / Simon R. Cherry ; Michael E. Phelps
Ⅰ. Introduction = 485
Ⅱ. Basic Overview and Principles of PET = 486
Ⅲ. Preparation of Positron-Labeled Compounds = 487
Ⅳ. PET Scanners = 489
Ⅴ. PET Data Correction and Image Reconstruction = 494
Ⅵ. Tracer Kinetic Models = 498
Ⅶ. Task-Specific Mapping of the Human Brain = 501
Ⅷ. Mapping Brain Function in Development and Disease = 504
Ⅸ. High-Resolution PET Studies in Animal Models = 506
Ⅹ. Summary = 508
References = 508
19 SPECT Functional Brain Imaging / Michael D. Devous, Sr.
Ⅰ. Introduction = 513
Ⅱ. Instrumentation = 514
Ⅲ. Radiopharmaceuticals = 520
Ⅳ. Factors That Affect Image Appearance = 525
Ⅴ. Intercomparison of Neuroimaging Techniques for the Quantification of rCBF = 528
Ⅵ. Radiation Risk Issues = 532
Ⅶ. Conclusions = 533
References = 533
Ⅳ Postmortem
20 Postmortem Anatomy / Jacopo Annese ; Arthur W. Toga
Ⅰ. Introduction = 537
Ⅱ. The Representation of Anatomy = 538
Ⅲ. The Specimen = 539
Ⅳ. Preservation of Anatomical Information = 541
Ⅴ. Preparing the Specimen for Cutting = 543
Ⅵ. Histological Slides = 544
Ⅶ. Histological Methods = 546
Ⅷ. Anatomical Visualization = 553
Ⅸ. Quantification = 557
Ⅹ. 3D Reconstruction = 558
XI. Epilogue = 562
References = 564
21 Ouantitative Analysis of Cyto- and Receptor Architecture of the Human Brain / Karl Zilles ; Axel Schleicher ; Nicola Palomero-Gallagher ; Katrin Amunts
Ⅰ. Introduction = 573
Ⅱ. Principles of Cytoarchitectonic Analysis
Ⅲ. Observer-Independent Mapping of the Human Cerebral Cortex = 579
Ⅳ. Quantitative Autoradiography of Different Receptor Binding Sites = 587
Ⅴ. Perspectives of Architectonic Mapping
References = 599
Ⅴ Analysis
22 Statistics Ⅰ : Experimental Design and Statistical Parametric Mapping / Karl J. Friston
Ⅰ. Introduction = 605
Ⅱ. Functional Specialization and Integration = 606
Ⅲ. Spatial Realignment and Normalization = 607
Ⅳ. Statistical Parametric Mapping = 610
Ⅴ. Experimental Design = 616
Ⅵ. Designing fMRI Studies = 618
Ⅶ. Inferences about Subjects and Populations = 624
Ⅷ. Effective Connectivity = 626
References = 630
23 Statistics Ⅱ : Correlation of Brain Structure and Function / Roger P. Woods
Ⅰ. Introduction = 633
Ⅱ. Intrasubject Multimodal Integration = 635
Ⅲ. Clinical Examples of Intrasubject Multimodal Registration = 640
Ⅳ. Intersubject Multimodal Integration = 649
Ⅴ. Conclusion = 657
References = 657
24 Advanced Nonrigid Registration Algorithms for Image Fusion / Simon K. Warfield ; Alexandre Guimond ; Alexis Roche ; Aditya Bharatha ; Alida Tei ; Florin Talos ; Jan Rexilius ; Juan Ruiz- Azola ; Carl-Fredrik Westin ; Steven Haker ; Sigurd Angenent ; Allen Tannenbaum ; Ferenc Jolesz ; Ron Kikinis
Ⅰ. Introduction = 661
Ⅱ. Intermodality and Multicontrast Images = 662
Ⅲ. Image Fusion during Neurosurgery with a Blomechanical Model of Brain Deformation = 668
Ⅳ. Physics-Based Regularization with an Empirical Model of Anatomical Variability = 674
Ⅴ. Registration of Diffusion Tensor Images = 677
Ⅵ. The Monge-Kantorovich Problem and Image registration = 683
References = 687
25 Combination of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Brain Mapping / Tom$$\acute a$$$$\check s$$ Paus
Ⅰ. Introduction = 691
Ⅱ. Neurophysiological Underpinnings of the Signal = 691
Ⅲ. Combination of TMS and Brain Mapping = 693
Ⅳ. Conclusion = 702
References = 703
26 Volume Visualization / Andreas Pommert ; Ulf Tiede ; Karl Heinz H$$\ddot o$$hne
Ⅰ. Introduction = 707
Ⅱ. Segmentation = 709
Ⅲ. Surface Extraction = 711
Ⅳ. Direct Volume Visualization = 712
Ⅴ. Visualization of Transformed Data = 717
Ⅵ. Image Fusion = 717
Ⅶ. Intelligent Visualization = 718
Ⅷ. Image Quality = 720
Ⅸ. Conclusions = 720
References = 721
Ⅵ Databases and Atlases
27 The International Consortium for Brain Mapping : A Probabilistic Atlas and Reference System for the Human Brain / John Mazziotta for the International Consortium for Brain Mapping
Ⅰ. Introduction = 727
Ⅱ. Motivation for Developing a Probabilistic Human Brain Atlas = 728
Ⅲ. Strategy and Rationale = 729
Ⅳ. Methods and Results = 741
Ⅴ. Other Issues = 749
Ⅵ. Limitations and Deliverables = 749
Ⅶ. Conclusions = 750
References = 751
28 Subpopulation Brain Atlases / Paul M. Thompson ; Michael S. Mega ; Arthur W. Toga
Ⅰ. Population-Based Brain Imaging = 757
Ⅱ. Atlases in Brain Mapping = 759
Ⅲ. Anatomical Modeling = 761
Ⅳ. Population Maps of the Cortex = 766
Ⅴ. Brain Averaging = 773
Ⅵ. Atlas Statistics : Probabilistic Atlases = 775
Ⅶ. Applications to Development and Disease = 779
Ⅷ. Dynamic Brain Maps = 780
Ⅸ. Genetic Brain Maps = 784
Ⅹ. Subpopulation Selections = 786
XI. Conclusions = 788
References = 788
Ⅶ Emerging Concepts
29 Radionuclide Imaging of Reporter Gene Expression / Gobalakrishnan Sundaresan ; Sanjiv S. Gambhir
Ⅰ. Overview of Molecular Imaging = 799
Ⅱ. Instrumentation for Molecular Imaging = 800
Ⅲ. Reporter Genes = 800
Ⅳ. Adapting the Reporter Gene Concept for Radionuclide Imaging = 801
Ⅴ. Application of in Vivo Reporter Gene Imaging to Monitor Gene Therapy Regimens = 806
Ⅵ. Indirect Imaging of Endogenous Gene Expression through Coupling Endogenous Promoters with Reporter Genes = 809
Ⅶ. Antisense Reporter Probes for Imaging Endogenous Gene Expression in Vivo = 812
Ⅷ. Nonradionuclide Approaches to Reporter Gene Imaging = 812
Ⅸ. Specific Issues for Neuroscience Applications = 813
Ⅹ. Human Gene Therapy of Brain Tumors and Imaging Studies = 813
XI. Conclusion = 815
References = 815
30 Mapping Gene Expression by MRI / Angelique Y. Louie ; Joseph A. Duimstra ; Thomas J. Meade
Ⅰ. Introduction = 819
Ⅱ. MRI Contrast Agents = 819
Ⅲ. Biochemically Activated MR Contrast Agents = 821
Ⅳ. Targeted MR Contrast Agents = 823
Ⅴ. Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Gene Expression = 825
Ⅵ. Conclusion = 827
References = 827
31 Speculations about the Future / John C. Mazziotta ; Arthur W. Toga
Ⅰ. Introduction = 831
Ⅱ. Previous Predictions and Their Outcomes = 831
Ⅲ. New Predictions = 840
Ⅳ. Conclusion = 853
References = 853
Index = 859
