CONTENTS
Preface = xv
CHAPTER 1 The functional approach to language and the typological approach to grammar = 1
1.1 Perspective = 1
1.1.1 Antecedence = 1
1.1.2 Structuralism = 4
1.1.3 Direct descent = 7
1.2 The role of grammar in human information processing = 7
1.2.1 The cognitive representation system = 7
1.2.2 Peripheral sensory-motor codes = 11
1.2.3 The grammatical code = 11
1.3 Grammatical vs. pre-grammatical communication = 13
1.4 The limits of conscious reflection = 16
1.5 The theme-and-variation approach to syntax = 18
1.6 The typological approach to grammar : Functional domains, cross-language diversity and universals = 20
1.6.1 The functional basis of grammatical typology = 20
1.6.2 The diachronic underpinnings of grammatical typology = 23
1.6.3 Typology and universals of grammar = 24
1.6.4 Ranges of typological variation = 25
1.7 Generativity and variation = 26
1.7.1 The bounds of rule-governedness = 26
1.7.2 Categories, continua and prototypes = 28
1.8 Iconicity, naturalness and markedness = 34
1.8.1 Iconicity vs. arbitrariness = 34
1.8.2 Markedness, complexity and frequency = 37
1.9 On the use, and uses, of this book = 41
CHAPTER 2 The lexicon : Words and morphemes = 43
2.1 Preliminaries = 43
2.1.1 Recapitulation : Meaning, information, discourse = 43
2.1.2 Semantic features and semantic fields = 43
2.2 Lexical vs. grammatical vocabulary = 44
2.2.1 Words and morphemes = 44
2.2.2 Morphemic status, morphotactics, and writing systems = 48
2.3 Major lexical word-classes = 49
2.3.1 Membership criteria = 49
2.3.2 Pragmatic limits of semantic taxonomies = 50
2.3.3 Semantic limits of semantic taxonomies = 50
2.3.4 Morphotactics : Affixes, clitics and inflections = 54
2.4 Nouns = 55
2.4.1 Semantic characterization = 55
2.4.2 Syntactic characteristics = 59
2.4.3 Morphological characteristics = 60
2.5 Verbs = 69
2.5.1 Semantic characterization = 69
2.5.2 Syntactic characterization = 69
2.5.3 Morphological characterization = 69
2.6 Adjectives = 81
2.6.1 Semantic characterization = 81
2.6.2 Syntactic characterization = 84
2.6.3 Morphological characterization = 85
2.7 Adverbs = 87
2.7.1 Preamble = 87
2.7.2 Semantic characterization = 88
2.8 Minor word classes = 94
2.8.1 Preamble = 94
2.8.2 Adpositions = 95
2.8.3 Determiners = 97
2.8.4 Independent subject and object pronouns = 99
2.8.5 Inter-clausal connectives = 99
2.8.6 Quantifiers, numerals and ordinals = 100
2.8.7 Auxiliary verbs = 102
2.8.8 Interjections = 102
CHAPTER 3 Simple verbal clauses and argument structure = 105
3.1 Preliminaries = 105
3.1.1 Orientation = 105
3.1.2 States, events, and actions = 106
3.1.3 Semantic roles = 106
3.1.4 Grammatical relations = 108
3.1.5 Transitivity = 109
3.2 Phrase structure and tree diagrams = 110
3.2.1 What the formalism is good for = 110
3.2.2 What the formalism is not good for = 114
3.3 The classification of verbs and simple clauses = 118
3.3.1 Dummy-subject verbs = 118
3.3.2 Copular clauses and copular verbs = 120
3.3.3 Simple intransitive verbs = 125
3.3.4 Simple transitive verbs = 126
3.3.5 Intransitive verbs with an indirect object = 136
3.3.6 Bi-transitive verbs = 141
3.3.7 Verbs with clausal(verbal) complements = 149
3.3.8 Multiple membership in verb classes = 160
3.4 Optional participant case-roles = 161
3.5 Distributed lexical verbs = 162
3.5.1 Complex predicates distributed across the clause = 163
3.5.2 Multiple stems distributed across the verbal word = 167
CHAPTER 4 Grammatical relations and case-marking systems = 173
4.1 Orientation = 173
4.2 Semantic roles vs. grammatical relations : The dissociation test = 173
4.3 Formal properties of grammatical relations = 175
4.3.1 Overt coding properties = 175
4.3.2 Behavior-and-control properties = 177
4.3.3 Universality and variation : The prototype approach to grammatical relations = 194
4.3.4 Functional correlates of grammatical relations = 195
4.4 The typology of case-marking systems = 197
4.4.1 Preliminaries = 197
4.4.2 Topicality and grammatical relations = 198
4.4.3 Major types of case-marking systems = 200
4.5 The typology of direct objects = 219
4.5.1 Overt coding properties : Degree of grammaticalization = 219
4.5.2 Morphological promotion-to-DO and the topicality hierarchy = 220
4.5.3 Promotion to DO and verb-coding of semantic roles = 225
4.6 Serial verbs, case-marking and grammatical relations = 227
4.7 Verb-coding of case-roles = 230
CHAPTER 5 Word order = 233
5.1 Preliminaries = 233
5.2 Scalarity, consistency and purity of types = 234
5.3 Rigid word-order types = 235
5.3.1 Rigid word-order in simple(main) clauses = 235
5.3.2 Rigid word-order in the noun phrase = 242
5.4 Mixed word-orders = 246
5.4.1 Mixed clausal order = 246
5.4.2 Mixed word-order in the NP = 254
5.5 Word-order and bound morphology = 260
5.5.1 Reorientation = 260
5.5.2 Case-marking morphology on nouns or NPs = 260
5.5.3 Tense-aspect-modal morphology = 263
5.5.4 Negation morphemes = 267
5.6 Flexible word-order = 270
5.6.1 Reorientation = 270
5.6.2 Types of flexible-order languages = 271
5.6.3 The pragmatics of word-order flexibility = 277
5.7 So-called non-configurationality = 279
CHAPTER 6 Tense, aspect and modalityⅠ : Functional organization = 285
6.1 Introduction = 285
6.2 Tense = 285
6.3 Aspect = 287
6.3.1 Perfectivity : boundedness and duration = 287
6.3.2 Perfective vs. imperfective = 288
6.3.3 The perfect = 293
6.3.4 The immediate aspect : Remote vs. vivid = 297
6.4 Modality and mood = 300
6.4.1 Preamble : Propositional modalities = 300
6.4.2 Epistemic modalities = 301
6.4.3 The distribution of modality in grammar = 302
6.4.4 Irrealis and the subjunctive moo$$d^8$$ = 312
6.4.5 Evidentiality and epistemic space = 326
6.5 Communicative and cognitive aspects of tense, aspectand modality = 329
6.5.1 Markedness = 329
6.5.2 Frequency text-distribution = 330
6.5.3 Cognitive considerations = 332
6.5.4 The discourse correlates of aspect : Perfective／imperfective vs. simultaneous／sequential = 333
CHAPTER 7 Tense, aspect and modalityⅡ ; Typological organization = 337
7.1 Reorientation = 337
7.2 The Creole prototype = 338
7.3 T-A-M auxiliaries and their grammaticalization = 340
7.4 The expansion of tense = 341
7.5 The scope-of-assertion aspect = 343
7.6 Perfective／imperfective-based systems = 345
7.7 A four-way dichotomy = 348
7.8 The conflation of perfect, durative and immediate = 352
7.9 The grammaticalization of modality = 355
7.9.1 Marking presupposed vs. asserted information = 355
7.9.2 Split vs. uniform marking of irrealis = 358
7.9.3 Unified vs. split subjunctive = 360
7.9.4 The use of perfective markers in subjunctive forms = 362
7.10 The grammaticalization of evidentiality = 366
7.11 Primary vs. secondary grammaticalization of T-A-M = 366
CHAPTER 8 Negation = 369
8.1 The multiple facets of negation = 369
8.1.1 Negation and propositional logic = 369
8.1.2 Negation and subjective certainty = 370
8.1.3 The communicative pragmatics of negation = 370
8.1.4 Negation as a speech-act = 372
8.2 The cognitive status of negation = 372
8.2.1 Change vs. stasis = 372
8.2.2 The ontology of negative events = 373
8.2.3 The ontology of negative states = 375
8.3 Negation and social interaction = 376
8.4 The scope of negation = 378
8.4.1 Presupposition, assertion and negation = 378
8.4.2 Negation and contrastive focus = 380
8.4.3 Negation and optional constituents = 381
8.5 The morpho-syntactic typology of VP negation = 382
8.5.1 Grammaticalization of negation markers = 382
8.5.2 De-verbal negation markers = 382
8.5.3 De-nominal negation markers = 383
8.5.4 Negation and word-order = 385
8.6 Further topics in the syntax of negation = 386
8.6.1 The coding of negative scope = 386
8.6.2 Diverse negation markers across grammatical contexts = 388
8.6.3 Emphatic or NP negation = 392
8.6.4 Negation in main vs. complement clauses = 393
8.6.5 Depth of embedding : Syntactic, morphological, and inherent('lexical') negation = 395
8.6.6 Negative polarity and levels of negation = 396
CHAPTER 9 Referential coherenceⅠ : Pronouns and grammatical agreement = 399
9.1 Introduction = 399
9.2 The semantic organization of pronominal paradigms = 400
9.2.1 pronominal classificatory features = 400
9.2.2 Initial selected examples = 401
9.3 Pronoun and grammatical agreement = 407
9.3.1 Optional clitic anaphoric pronouns(Ute) = 407
9.3.2 Pronominal agreement on the verb = 408
9.4 The implicational hierarchies of pronominal agreement = 416
9.5 Foundations of the grammar anaphoric reference = 417
9.5.1 Preamble = 417
9.5.2 Anaphoric zero vs. unstressed anaphoric pronouns = 417
9.5.3 Anaphoric vs. stressed independent pronouns = 418
9.5.4 Pronouns and zero anaphors vs. definite full-NPs = 419
9.6 Explaining the rise of pronominal agreement = 420
9.7 Head-modifier agreement in the noun phrase = 426
9.8 Multiple functions of grammatical agreement = 430
9.8.1 Verb-type and transitivity(Melanesian Pidgin) = 430
9.8.2 Marking direct vs. indirect objects(KinyaRwanda, Lunda) = 431
9.8.3 Marking topical objects(Amharic, Machiguenga) = 432
9.8.4 Marking definite objects(Swahili) = 433
9.8.5 Marking main vs. subordinate clauses(Bemba) = 433
9.8.6 Marking existential-presentative clauses(KinyaRwanda) = 433
9.8.7 Binding NP constituents together = 434
9.9 Indefinite and non-referring pronouns = 434
CHAPTER 10 Referential coherenceⅡ : Reference and definiteness = 437
10.1 Introduction = 437
10.2 Reference = 437
10.2.1 The Real World vs. the Universe of Discourse = 437
10.2.2 Referential intent = 439
10.2.3 The universal quantifier and non-reference = 439
10.3 The semantics of indefinite reference⁴ = 440
10.3.1 Referential opacity = 441
10.3.2 Reference and propositional modalities = 441
10.3.3 Gradations of referentiality = 449
10.4 Grammatical marking of indefinite reference = 450
10.4.1 Preamble = 450
10.4.2 The numeral 'one' as reference marker = 450
10.4.3 The demonstrative 'this' as reference marker = 452
10.4.4 Noun classifiers and reference markers = 453
10.4.5 Grammatical devices that mark non-reference = 454
10.5 The pragmatics of indefinite reference : Denotation vs. topicality = 455
10.6 Definiteness = 459
10.6.1 Definiteness and anaphoric reference = 459
10.6.2 Grounding referents to the shared current speech situation(working memory, current attention focus) = 460
10.6.3 Grounding to shared generic-lexical knowledge(permanent semantic memory) = 460
10.6.4 Anaphoric grounding to the shared current text(long-term episodic memory) = 462
10.6.5 Proper names and global access = 464
10.6.6 Generic subjects = 465
10.6.7 Gradation of definite description = 467
10.7 Grammatical marking of definite NPs = 468
10.7.1 Distal demonstratives = 468
10.7.2 Noun classifiers = 469
10.7.3 Definite-accusative markers = 470
10.7.4 Direct object and dative shifting = 471
10.7.5 Topicalization and definiteness = 472
10.7.6 Pronominal object agreement = 473
10.7.7 Definiteness, reference and case-roles = 473
10.8 The grammar of referential coherence as mental processing instructions = 474
Bibliography = 479
Index = 493
