CONTENTS
Preface = xv
Note on the text = xvi
List of abbreviations = xvii
1 Introduction = 1
1.1 Basic concepts = 1
1.1.1 Realis and irrealis = 1
1.1.2 The notion of assertion = 3
1.2 Two basic distinctions = 4
1.2.1 Mood and modal systems = 4
1.2.2 Propositional and Event modality = 7
1.3 The classification of modality in modal systems = 8
1.3.1 Epistemic and Evidential = 8
1.3.2 Deontic and Dynamic = 9
1.4 Other types of modality = 10
1.4.1 Presupposed = 11
1.4.2 Negative and Interrogative = 11
1.4.3 Wishes, fears, etc. = 13
1.4.4 Past tense as modal = 13
1.4.5 Complex systems = 14
1.5 Typology = 18
1.6 Grammatical markers = 19
1.7 Terminology = 19
1.8 Summary of basic categories = 22
1.9 Organization = 22
2 Modal systems : Propositional modality = 24
2.1 Epistemic modality = 24
2.1.1 The three types = 24
2.1.2 Speculative and deductive = 26
2.1.3 Deductive and Assumptive = 28
2.1.4 May as concessive = 31
2.1.5 Modifications = 31
2.1.6 Past time reference = 33
2.1.7 Inference and confidence = 34
2.2 Evidential modality = 35
2.2.1 Evidential systems = 35
2.2.2 Reported = 40
2.2.3 Sensory = 43
2.2.4 Direct and indirect evidence = 47
2.2.5 Other evidential possibilities = 50
2.2.6 Hierarchy = 51
2.2.7 Evidentials and certainty = 52
2.3 Interrogative and Negative = 52
2.4 Two other possibilities = 55
2.5 Structure of propositional systems = 56
2.6 Discourse and participants = 58
2.6.1 Discourse systems = 58
2.6.2 Participant systems = 62
2.7 Declaratives = 64
2.7.1 Declaratives and modal systems = 65
2.7.2 Assertion and 'strong assertion' = 68
3 Modal systems : Event modality = 70
3.1 Formal systems = 70
3.2 Deontic = 70
3.2.1 Directives = 71
3.2.2 Commissive = 72
3.2.3 Modifications = 73
3.2.4 Subjectivity = 75
3.2.5 Past time reference = 76
3.3 Dynamic = 76
3.3.1 Ability and willingness = 76
3.3.2 Past tense and time = 79
3.4 Imperative and jussive = 80
3.5 'Purposive' in Australian languages = 83
3.6 An alternative analysis = 84
4 Modal systems and modal verbs = 86
4.1 Modal systems = 86
4.1.1 Formal identity of different systems = 86
4.1.2 Possibility and necessity = 89
4.1.3 Possibility, necessity and negation in English = 90
4.1.4 Possibility, necessity and negation in other languages = 92
4.1.5 The notional connection = 98
4.2 Modal verbs = 100
4.2.1 Modal verbs in English = 100
4.2.2 Modal verbs in other languages = 101
4.2.3 Formal differences = 103
4.3 Modal systems and other categories = 104
4.3.1 Mood = 104
4.3.2 Future = 104
4.3.3 Negation = 106
5 Indicative and subjunctive = 107
5.1 Main and subordinate clauses = 108
5.1.1 Main clauses = 108
5.1.2 Subordinate clauses = 111
5.2 Propositional modality = 112
5.2.1 Speculative = 112
5.2.2 Reported = 113
5.2.3 Negative = 116
5.2.4 Interrogative = 120
5.2.5 Presupposed = 121
5.2.6 Future = 124
5.2.7 Conditional = 124
5.2.8 Other types = 125
5.3 Event modality = 126
5.3.1 Directives = 127
5.3.2 Purposive = 128
5.3.3 Wishes, fears, etc. = 131
5.3.4 Resultative = 135
5.4 Imperative and Jussive = 136
5.4.1 Morphology and syntax = 137
5.4.2 Subjunctive = 138
5.5 Subjunctive as subordinator = 142
5.6 Other possibilities = 144
6 Realis and Irrealis = 145
6.1 Joint and non-joint marking = 145
6.2 Terminology = 148
6.3 Morphology and syntax = 150
6.3.1 Morphology = 150
6.3.2 Linked clauses = 152
6.3.3 Complement clauses = 154
6.4 Joint systems = 157
6.5 Non-joint systems = 160
6.5.1 Binary systems = 160
6.5.2 Realis, irrealis and unmarked = 161
6.5.3 Wider systems = 163
6.5.4 Complex systems = 166
6.6 Propositional modality = 168
6.6.1 Past, present and future = 168
6.6.2 Speculative and Deductive = 170
6.6.3 Interrogative = 172
6.6.4 Negative = 173
6.6.5 Negative-like categories = 175
6.6.6 Reported = 176
6.6.7 Presupposed = 177
6.6.8 Conditional = 177
6.6.9 Habitual Past = 179
6.7 Event modality = 179
6.7.1 Imperative and jussive = 179
6.7.2 'Strong' and 'polite' commands = 181
6.7.3 Obligative = 183
6.7.4 Abilitive = 184
7 Subjunctive and irrealis = 185
7.1 Similarities and differences = 185
7.2 A binary system = 187
7.3 The typological status of Realis／Irrealis = 188
7.4 Alternative subordinate constructions = 191
7.4.1 Non-finite clauses = 192
7.4.2 Direct speech = 196
7.5 Speaker commitment = 198
7.6 The subjunctive in English = 201
8 Past tense as modal = 203
8.1 'Real' and 'unreal' = 203
8.2 Modal-tense = 203
8.2.1 Modal verbs = 203
8.2.2 Greek optative = 204
8.3 Real and unreal conditions = 207
8.3.1 Marking by tense = 207
8.3.2 Marking by tense and mood = 209
8.3.3 Interaction of modality and unreality = 211
8.3.4 Further possibilities = 214
8.4 Wishes = 216
8.5 Russian 'subjunctive' = 217
8.6 Explanation = 218
References = 222
Language index = 231
General index = 234
