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CONTENTS

Abbreviations, etc = xvii

Languages Cited = xxxiii

1. Introduction = 1

 1.1. Similarities between languages in vocabulary = 1

 1.2. Similarities in grammatical structure = 2

 1.3. The foundation of comparative linguistics = 3

 1.4. The foundation of historical linguistics = 7

 1.5. Aims of comparative linguistics = 8

 1.6. Its subject-matter： the Indo-European languages = 9

2. Language in Change = 14

 2.1. Divergences in form = 14

 2.2. Divergences in meaning = 15

 2.3. Regularity in sound change = 17

 2.4. Exceptions and their explanation = 18

 2.5. Sound laws = 21

 2.6. Are they valid or not? = 22

 2.7. Confirmation by phonology = 24

 2.8. Analogy = 27

 2.9. Comparison of higher units = 28

 2.10. A final word on the sound laws = 29

3. Tasks of Indo-European Linguistics = 31

 3.1. The reconstruction of Indo-European = 31

 3.2. Further questions = 33

4 Phonology： Reconstruction of the System = 37

 4.1. Vowels = 37

 4.2. Diphthongs = 42

 4.3. Semivowels = 44

 4.4. Nasals and liquids = 45

 4.5. Syllabic nasals and liquids = 46

 4.6. Spirants = 51

 4.7. Stops = 54

 4.8. Voiceless aspirates = 68

 4.9. The phonological system of Indo-European = 69

5. Morphonology = 71

 5.1. Basic concepts = 71

 5.2. Accent = 73

 5.3. Vowel alternations： ablaut = 83

 5.4. Consonant alternations = 93

 5.5. Morpheme structure = 97

 5.6. Combinatory changes in morpheme sequences = 101

 5.7. Syllable structure(Sievers' Law) = 105

6. Prehistory of the Indo-European Phonological System = 111

 6.1. Origin of the ablaut grades： zero grade = 111

 6.2. Long grade = 113

 6.3. o-grade = 119

 6.4. The laryngeal theory = 121

 6.5. Morpheme structure = 130

 6.6. Origin and inventory of the IE vowel system = 134

 6.7. Inventory and development of the IE consonant system = 142

 6.8. Summary = 150

 6.9. New views on the subsystem of stops = 151

7. Morphology Ⅰ：Nouns and Adjectives = 155

 7.1. Preliminary remarks on noun inflexion = 155

 7.2. Stems ending in stops = 164

 7.3. Nasal and liquid stems = 168

 7.4. s-stems = 174

 7.5. i-and u-stems, diphthong stems = 175

 7.6. Thematic stems = 182

 7.7. $$\bar a$$ and $$\bar i$$-stems = 188

 7.8. Adjectives and degrees of comparison = 192

8. Morphology Ⅱ：Pronouns and Numerals = 203

 8.1. Preliminary remarks on the pronouns = 203

 8.2. Demonstrative pronouns = 203

 8.3. Interrogative and relative pronouns = 208

 8.4. Personal pronouns = 211

 8.5. Numerals = 221

9. Morphology Ⅲ：Verbs = 230

 9.1. Preliminary remarks on the IE verbal system = 233

 9.2. Personal endings, thematic vowel, voices = 233

  9.2.1. Active endings in the present and aorist system = 233

   9.2.2.1. Middle endings in the present and aorist system 238

   9.2.2.2. r-endings = 242

  9.2.3. Endings of the perfect = 243

  9.2.4. The Anatolian system = 245

  9.2.5. Imperative endings = 247

  (a)The simple imperative = 247

  (b)The future imperative = 247

  9.2.6. Thematic vowel and ablaut： verbal accent = 250

   9.2.6.1. Proterodynamic verbs = 252

  9.2.7. Voices = 252

 9.3. Mood formations = 257

  9.3.1. Indicative = 257

   9.3.1.1. Subjunctive = 257

   9.3.1.2. Optative = 259

   9.3.1.3. $$\bar a$$-subjunctive = 261

   9.3.1.4. Imperative = 263

   9.3.1.5. Injunctive = 263

 9.4. Tense stems = 266

  9.4.1. Present formations = 266

   9.4.1.1. Root formations = 267

   9.4.1.2. Reduplicated formations = 268

   9.4.1.3. Nasal formations = 270

   9.4.1.4. -sk- formations = 273

   9.4.1.5. -yo- formations = 274

   9.4.1.6. Further formations = 279

  9.4.2. Aorist and future = 280

   9.4.2.1. Aorist formations = 280

    (a)Athematic asigmatic = 280

    (b)Thematic asigmatic = 281

    (c)Sigmatic = 281

    9.4.2.1.4. The 'aorist passive' = 283

   9.4.2.2. Future = 285

  9.4.3. Perfect = 288

  9.4.4. Augment, polymorphism, suppletivism, system, aspect, accent = 296

   9.4.4.1. Augment, imperfect, pluperfect = 296

   9.4.4.2. Polymorphism = 300

   9.4.4.3. Suppletivism = 301

   9.4.4.4. The verbal system = 302

   9.4.4.5. Aspect = 305

   9.4.4.6. Accent in verbs = 313

 9.5. Synthesis： paradigms with comments = 314

 9.6. The non-finite verb = 317

   9.6.1.1. -nt- participle = 317

   9.6.1.2. -wos- participle = 319

   9.6.1.3. -meno-participle and the Latin -nd- formations = 320

   9.6.1.4. Verbal adjectives in -to- and -no- = 323

  9.6.2. Infinitive = 324

 9.7. Prehistory = 326

  9.7.1. Personal endings = 327

   9.7.1.1. The marker -i = 327

   9.7.1.2. Origin of the personal endings = 329

   9.7.1.3. Perfect endings and r-endings = 332

  9.7.2. Modal formations = 336

  9.7.3. Loss or innovation? = 337

  9.7.4. Reduction of the system = 337

Special Topics = 339

Index = 341