CONTENTS
Contributors = xii
Foreword = xv
Preface = xvii
1 History of Research on Thinking and Problem Solving / Roger L. Dominowski ; Lyle E. Bourne, Jr.
I. Major Antecedents of the Science of Psychology = 1
A. Associationism = 2
B. Faculties of the Mind = 4
II. An Experimental Psychology of Thinking = 5
A. Thinking According to Wundt = 5
B. Thinking According to Ebbinghaus = 7
III. Later Developments = 8
A. Act Psychology = 8
B. Early British Psychology = 11
IV. The Psychology of Thinking in America = 12
A. William James = 12
B. Functionalism = 13
C. Later Functionalism = 14
D. Behaviorism = 15
E. Gestalt Psychology = 16
V. Thinking Research to 1960 = 18
A. Research on Concepts = 18
B. Research on Problem Solving = 23
C. Research on Reasoning = 30
VI. Transition to the New Cognitive Era = 32
References = 33
2 Contemporary Approaches to the Study of Thinking and Problem Solving / K. Anders Ericsson ; Reid Hastie
I. Introduction = 37
II. A Brief History of the Study of Thinking = 39
A. Prescientific and Philosophical Accounts of Thinking = 39
B. Early Laboratory Studies on Sensation and Thinking = 41
C. From Conscious Experience to Performance = 43
III. The Information-Processing Account of Thinking = 45
Some Issues in Research on Information Processing = 48
IV. The Relation between the Study of Thinking in the Laboratory and in Everyday Life = 52
A. The Quest for General Processes = 53
B. Capturing Everyday Phenomena in Laboratory Tasks = 56
C. Differences in Knowledge and Skill = 58
V. The Acquisition of Complex Knowledge and Skills = 63
A. Learning of Different Types of Performance = 64
B. Activities Relevant to Everyday Skill Acquisition = 66
VI. Summary and Conclusions = 69
References = 72
3 Knowledge Representation / Timothy P. McNamara
I. The Nature of Knowledge Representations = 83
A. What Are Mental Representations and Why Are They Necessary? = 83
B. Can Knowledge Representations Be Distinguished? = 84
C. A Taxonomy = 86
II. Simple Knowledge Representations = 90
A. Analogical Knowledge Representations = 90
B. Symbolic Knowledge Representations = 97
C. Procedural Knowledge Representations = 104
III. Complex Knowledge Representations = 107
A. Schemata = 107
B. Cognitive Maps = 108
C. Mental Models = 109
IV. Connectionist Models = 110
V. Summary and Prospectus = 112
References = 113
4 Concepts and Categories / Brian H. Ross ; Thomas L. Spalding
I. Introduction = 119
A. Definition of Concepts and Categories = 120
B. Functions of Categories = 120
II. How Do People Classify? = 122
A. The Classical View = 122
B. The Probabilistic View = 123
C. The Exemplar View = 125
D. Mixed Models = 127
III. Problems for All Models of Classification = 128
A. Between-Concept Relations: Basic Levels = 129
B. Classification Disconnected from Other Uses of Concepts = 132
C. Difficulties for Classification: Features and Similarity = 134
D. Summary = 135
IV. Theory-Based Conceptual Knowledge = 135
A. The Theory-Based View = 137
B. What Do We Gain? = 139
C. Problems with the Theory View = 140
V. Current Directions = 141
A. Classification = 141
B. Inference = 141
C. Conceptual Combinations = 143
D. More Radical Extensions = 144
VI. Concluding Remarks = 145
References = 145
5 Deduction and Its Cognitive Basis / Lance J. Rips
I. What Accounts for Elementary Inference? = 150
II. Inference Rules and Logical Form = 151
III. Instrumental Theories = 153
A. Two Qualifications = 154
B. Experimental Implications = 156
IV. Pattern Processing Theories: Diagrammatic and Connectionist Accounts = 159
A. Diagrammatic Theories = 160
B. Connectionist Theories = 167
V. What Is Behind Deduction Ability? = 173
References = 177
6 Inductive Reasoning / Jeffery Bisanz ; Gay L. Bisanz ; Connie A. Korpan
I. Characteristics of Induction = 181
II. A Cognitive-Components Approach = 183
A. Identifying Processes and Representations = 185
B. An Integrative Theory = 191
C. Summary and Evaluation = 195
III. A Pragmatic Approach = 196
A. Research on Statistical Reasoning = 199
B. Conclusions and Evaluation = 205
IV. Conclusions = 208
References = 210
7 Problem Solving / Earl Hunt
I. Introduction = 215
II. From Intuitions to Problem Spaces = 216
III. Historical and Modern Approaches to the Study of Thought: From Aristotle's Syllogisms to Programs for Thinking = 217
IV. Problem Solving as Searching through a Knowledge Space = 220
V. Pattern-Action Rules and Human Problem Solving = 222
VI. Limitations on Representations Introduced by Immediate Memory = 224
VII. Means-End Analysis: Backward and Forward Problem Solving = 225
VIII. Schematic Reasoning and General Problem Solving = 227
IX. Applied Reasoning: The Ideal Problem Solver and How It Can Be Approximated = 229
X. Conclusion: Understanding Human Problem Solving and Problem Representations = 230
References = 231
8 Language and Thought / Richard J. Gerrig ; Mahzarin R. Banaji
I. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Revisited = 235
A. Color Memory = 237
B. Counterfactual Constructions and Reasoning = 239
C. Concept Labels and Cognition = 242
II. Conceptual Metaphors = 245
A. The Influence of Thought on Metaphorical Language = 246
B. The Influence of Metaphorical Language on Thought = 249
III. Language Acquisition = 252
A. The Influence of Cognitive Development on Language Acquisition = 252
B. The Influence of Language Acquisition on Cognitive Development = 253
C. Bilingualism = 256
IV. Conclusions = 257
References = 258
9 Intelligence / Robert J. Sternberg
I. Biological Approaches to Intelligence = 266
A. Global Theories of Brain and Intelligence = 266
B. Nerve Conduction Velocity = 267
C. Hemispheric Specialization = 269
D. Brain Size = 270
E. Brain Activity = 270
II. Cognitive Approaches = 272
A. Historical Approaches = 272
B. The Cognitive-Correlates Approach = 273
C. The Cognitive-Components Approach = 274
D. Artificial-Intelligence Approaches = 276
III. Contextual Approaches to Intelligence = 278
IV. The Systems Approach = 280
A. The Theory of Multiple Intelligences = 281
B. The Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence = 281
V. Conclusion = 282
References = 283
10 Creativity / Todd I. Lubart
I. The Basic Phenomenon: Descriptive Issues = 290
A. Definition of Creativity = 290
B. Distribution of Creativity = 293
C. Domain Specifidty = 293
II. The Source of Creativity = 294
A. An Overview of Alternative Conceptions = 294
B. Components of Creaticity = 301
III. The Creative Process = 314
A. Different Theoretical Positions on the Creative Process = 314
B. The Four-Stage Creative Process Model: A Case Study = 316
IV. Techniques for Measuring Creativity = 318
A. Cognitive Abilities Test = 318
B. Personality Inventories = 320
C. Biographical Inventories = 320
D. Attitude and Interest Surveys = 321
E. Person-Centered Ratings by Teachers, Peers, and Supervisors = 321
F. Eminence = 321
G. Self-Reports of Achievements = 322
H. Judgments of Work Samples = 322
V. Summary and Conclusions = 323
References = 323
11 Development of Problem Solving / Shari Ellis ; Robert S. Siegler
I. The Early Development of Problem Solving = 334
A. Strategic Development = 334
B. Representational Development in the Toddler Period = 337
C. Self-Regulation in Preschooler's Problem Solving = 341
II. Development of Problem Solving in Later Childhood = 345
A. Strategic Development = 345
B. Representational Development = 349
C. Self-Regulation = 354
III. Conclusions = 360
References = 363
12 Cultural Dimensions of Cognition: A Multiplex, Dynamic System of Constraints and Possibilities / Robert Serpell ; A. Wade Boykin
I. Introduction = 369
II. Dimensions of Cognition Amenable to Cultural Influence = 373
A. Knowledge Base = 373
B. Structural Organization = 375
C. Hierarchy of Values = 377
D. Pragmatic Focus = 378
III. Conceptualizations of Cultural Context = 379
A. Relationships, Practices, and Meanings = 379
B. Appropriation of Cultural Resources = 381
C. The Nature of Cultural Integrity = 381
D. The Significance of History = 383
IV. A Blind Spot in American Psychology = 385
V. Cognition and Schooling in Low-Income African-American Communities: Empirical Studies = 389
VI. The Significance of Schooling in a Rural African Neighborhood: A Case Study = 392
VII. Processes of Bicultural Mediation = 396
VIII. Implications for Educational Practice = 400
References = 403
13 The Teaching of Thinking and Problem Solving / Raymond S. Nickerson
I. Introduction = 409
II. The Need to Teach Thinking and Problem Solving = 410
III. Interest in the Teaching of Thinking and Problem Solving = 411
IV. Why the Interest in Teaching Thinking and Problem Solving? = 413
V. Foci of Efforts to Teach Thinking and Problem Solving = 414
A. Basic Operations or Processes = 415
B. Domain-Specific Knowledge = 415
C. Knowledge of Normative Principles of Reasoning = 416
D. Knowledge of Informal Principles and Tools of Thought = 418
E. Metacognitive Knowledge = 419
F. Attitudes, Dispositions, Values, and Styles = 420
G. Beliefs = 420
H. Interdependence of Factors = 421
VI. Theories, Models, and Conceptual Frameworks = 422
VII. Stepwise Conceptions of Problem Solving = 424
VIII. Problem-Solving Methods and Strategies = 425
A. Problem Decomposition or Subgoaling = 425
B. Working Backwards = 426
C. Hill Climbing = 426
D. Means-End Analysis = 427
E. Forward Chaining = 427
F. Considering Analogous Problems = 428
G. Specialization and Generalization = 428
H. Considering Extreme Cases = 429
I. Mixing Strategies = 430
IX. Representation = 430
X. Evaluation = 434
XI. The Question of Transfer = 436
XII. Practicalities of Teaching Thinking and Problem Solving = 438
XIII. Cognitive Research and the Practice of Teaching = 439
XIV. Concluding Comments = 440
References = 441
Index = 451
