CONTENTS
List figures = xiii
List of tables = xv
Preface = xvii
List of abbreviations = xix
1. INTRODUCTION = 1
1.1 Gender in the languages of the world = 1
1.2 General approach and outline of the book = 2
1.3 Presentation of data = 6
2. GENDER ASSIGNMENT 1: SEMANTIC SYSTEMS = 7
2.1 Strict semantic systems = 8
2.1.1 Tamil and other Dravidian languages = 8
2.1.2 Other strict semantic systems = 11
2.2 Predominantly semantic systems = 13
2.2.1 Zande = 14
2.2.2 Dyirbal = 15
2.2.3 Ket = 19
2.2.4 Ojibwa and other Algonquian languages = 20
2.2.5 Lak and other Caucasian languages = 24
2.2.6 Other partially semantic systems = 29
2.3 The criteria on which semantic systems are based = 30
2.4 Conclusion = 32
3. GENDER ASSIGNMENT Ⅱ: FORMAL SYSTEMS = 33
3.1 Morphological systems = 34
3.1.1 Russian = 34
3.1.2 Swahili and other Bantu languages = 43
3.1.3 The features on which morphological systems are based = 49
3.2 Phonological systems = 51
3.2.1 Qafar = 51
3.2.2 Hausa = 52
3.2.3 Godie and other Kru languages = 53
3.2.4 Yimas = 55
3.2.5 French = 57
3.2.6 The features on which phonological systems are based = 62
3.3 General characteristics of assignment systems = 62
3.3.1 Overt and covert gender = 62
3.3.2 Overlapping of assignment criteria = 63
3.3.3 Problematic nouns = 66
3.4 Conclusion = 68
4. THE PSYCHOLINGUISTIC STATUS OF GENDER ASSIGNMENT = 70
4.1 Borrowings = 70
4.1.1 Assignment of borrowings by normal rules = 71
4.1.2 Claims for special assignment rules = 75
4.2 Child language acquisition = 82
4.3 Experimental evidence = 89
4.4 Residual meaning of gender = 92
4.5 Diachronic evidence = 97
4.6 Conclusion = 104
5. GENDER AGREEMENT = 105
5.1 Elements showing gender agreement = 106
5.2 The form of gender agreement = 115
5.2.1 The morphology of gender agreement = 115
5.2.2 Alliterative concord = 117
5.2.3 A complex example: Khinalug = 119
5.3 Limits on gender agreement = 123
5.3.1 Syntactic restrictions = 124
5.3.2 Interaction with tense = 125
5.3.3 Interaction with person = 126
5.3.4 Interaction with number = 132
5.3.5 Interaction with case = 132
5.3.6 Morphological class = 133
5.3.7 Phonological constraints = 134
5.3.8 Lexical restrictions = 134
5.4 Lack of agreement: classifiers = 136
5.5 The gaining and losing of gender agreement = 137
5.6 Conclusion = 143
6. ESTABLISHING THE NUMBER OF GENDERS = 145
6.1 Terms = 146
6.2 Agreement classes = 147
6.3 Controller genders and target genders = 150
6.3.1 The relation of gender and number = 154
6.3.2 Relation to semantics = 158
6.3.3 The relation of controller genders to target genders = 159
6.4 The maximalist problem = 161
6.4.1 Subgenders = 161
6.4.2 Overdifferentiated targets and pronominal gender systems = 168
6.4.3 Inquorate genders = 170
6.4.4 Defective nouns = 175
6.4.5 Consistent agreement patterns = 176
6.4.6 Combined gender systems = 184
6.5 Conclusion = 188
7. TARGET GENDERS: SYNCRETISM AND ENFORCED GENDER FORMS = 189
7.1 Gender and number = 189
7.1.1 Syncretism: further examples of convergent and crossed systems = 190
7.1.2 Types of syncretism = 194
7.1.3 Diachronic implications = 198
7.2 Neutral agreement = 203
7.2.1 The problem = 204
7.2.2 Strategy 1 : the use of a regular gender/number form = 205
7.2.3 Strategy 2 : the use of a unique neutral agreement form = 214
7.2.4 Extension of use of neutral agreement forms = 216
7.2.5 Neutral agreement : summing up = 217
7.3 Gender agreement with noun phrases involving reference problems = 218
7.3.1 Use of one possible form by convention = 219
7.3.2 Use of an 'evasive' form = 221
7.3.3 Use of a special form = 223
7.3.4 No strategy = 223
7.4 Conclusion = 223
8. HYBRID NOUNS AND THE AGREEMENT HIERARCHY = 225
8.1 The Agreement Hierarchy = 225
8.1.1 Data = 226
8.1.2 Wider considerations = 236
8.2 Personal pronouns = 241
8.3 Diachrony = 248
8.4 Conclusion = 259
9. GENDER RESOLUTION RULES = 261
9.1 Features requiring resolution = 262
9.1.1 Person resolution = 262
9.1.2 Number resolution = 263
9.1.3 Gender resolution = 264
9.2 The application of resolution rules = 264
9.2.1 Agreement with one conjunct = 265
9.2.2 Factors favouring resolution = 267
9.3 Semantic gender resolution = 269
9.4 Syntactic gender resolution = 279
9.5 Mixed semantic and syntactic gender resolution = 284
9.6 Strategies for gender resolution = 290
9.6.1 Markedness: an inadequate motivation = 290
9.6.2 Semantic justification and clear marking of plurality = 293
9.7 Diachrony = 299
9.8 Conclusion = 306
10. GENERALIZATIONS AND PROSPECTS = 307
10.1 Meaning and form = 307
10.1.1 A perspective on gender systems = 307
10.1.2 Earlier research on gender = 308
10.2 Diachrony = 310
10.2.1 The rise of gender systems = 310
10.2.2 The development of gender systems = 312
10.2.3 The decline of gender systems = 315
10.3 Prospects = 318
10.3.1 Descriptive studies = 319
10.3.2 The function of gender = 320
10.3.3 Collaborative work = 323
References = 324
Author index = 352
Language index = 357
Subject index = 361
