CONTENTS
Preface = xi
Acknowledgements = xiv
Abbreviations and symbols = xvi
The International Phonetic Alphabet = xviii
Chapter 1 Introduction： what is a language? = 1
1.1 Properties of human language = 1
1.1.1 Language is a code = 2
1.1.2 Linguistic symbols have function and form = 3
1.1.3 Linguistic units are constructed according to rules = 6
1.1.4 Language is specifically human = 8
1.1.5 Language use is creative = 9
1.1.6 Language use is constrained = 10
Glossary = 13
Further reading = 15
PART Ⅰ SOUNDS = 17
Chapter 2 Speech sounds = 19
2.1 Sounds and spelling = 20
2.1.1 The International Phonetic Alphabet = 23
2.2 Articulatory phonetics = 27
2.2.1 Organs of speech = 27
2.2.2 Speech production = 29
2.2.3 Vowels = 39
Further exercises = 45
Chapter 3 The phonology of English = 48
Introduction-Sounds： same vs different = 48
3.1 Identification of phonemes = 51
3.1.1 Complementary distribution = 53
3.1.2 Defective distribution = 53
3.1.3 Parallel distribution = 54
3.1.4 Free variation = 59
3.1.5 Variation and dialects = 59
3.2 Phonemes and allophones revisited = 61
3.3 Phonemic analysis = 62
3.3.1 The phonemic system = 62
3.3.2 Phonotactics = 63
3.3.3 Allophonic rules = 66
3.4 Allophonic processes = 68
3.4.1 Aspiration = 68
3.4.2 Assimilation = 70
3.4.3 Elision = 74
3.4.4 Insertion = 75
3.5 Allophones = 75
3.5.1 Stops = 75
3.5.2 Voiced fricatives = 77
3.5.3 Sonorants = 77
3.5.4 Vowels = 78
3.6 Derivations = 78
3.7 Features = 79
3.7.1 The necessity of features = 79
3.7.2 A set of distinctive features for English = 81
3.7.3 Classificatory features = 82
3.7.4 Nasals = 83
3.7.5 Place of articulation features = 83
3.7.6 Tongue body features = 84
3.7.7 Further articulatory features = 85
3.7.8 Manner features = 86
3.7.9 Source features = 86
3.7.10 Feature matrices and redundancy = 87
3.7.11 Natural classes = 88
3.7.12 The plural revisited = 90
Further exercises = 93
Chapter 4 Syllables and suprasegmentals = 95
4.1 Syllables = 95
4.1.1 Syllable boundaries and phonotactics = 96
4.1.2 Syllable structure = 97
4.1.3 Nucleus, rhyme, onset and coda = 97
4.2 Suprasegmental features of English = 101
4.2.1 Pitch = 101
4.2.2 Intonation = 102
4.3 Stress = 109
4.3.1 Levels of stress = 110
4.3.2 Stress in connected speech-rhythm = 110
Further exercises = 113
Glossary = 114
Further reading = 125
PART Ⅱ WORDS = 127
Chapter 5 The form and function of words = 129
Introduction： dictionaries and lexemes = 129
5.1 Wordsandtheirgrammaticalcategories：syntactic categories and inflection = 131
5.1.1 Introduction = 131
5.1.2 Nouns = 132
5.1.3 Adjectives = 135
5.1.4 Verbs = 138
5.1.5 Adverbs = 140
5.1.6 Prepositions = 141
5.2 Word formation = 142
5.2.1 Compounding = 143
5.2.2 Derivational affixation = 146
5.2.3 Conversion = 150
5.3 Kinds of morphemes = 150
5.3.1 Bound and free morphemes = 150
5.3.2 Stems and affixes = 151
5.3.3 More on inflectional morphemes = 152
5.4 Morphological properties = 154
5.4.1 Existing and non-existing, possible and impossible words = 154
5.4.2 Productivity = 154
5.4.3 Diagramming word structure = 156
Further exercises = 160
Chapter 6 word meanings and vocabularies = 163
6.1 The meaning of words = 163
6.1.1 Sameness and difference of sense = 164
6.1.2 Oppositeness of sense = 167
6.1.3 Sense components = 169
6.1.4 Metaphor = 173
6.1.5 Word meanings in context = 175
6.1.6 Reference = 178
6.1.7 Word associations and connotations = 178
6.2 Vocabularies = 180
6.2.1 Adding to vocabularies = 181
6.2.2 Coining new words = 185
6.2.3 Change through time = 186
6.2.4 Reduced usage, archaism and loss = 188
6.2.5 Word histories = 190
6.2.6 Dialect vocabularies = 190
6.2.7 Specialist vocabularies = 194
6.2.8 Formality and vocabulary = 195
6.2.9 Dictionaries = 196
Further exercises = 201
Glossary = 203
Further reading = 210
PART Ⅲ SENTENCES = 211
Chapter 7 The structure of simple sentences = 213
Introduction = 213
7.1 Simple phrases = 214
7.1.1 Three ways to identify phrases = 214
7.1.2 Heads and modifiers = 217
7.1.3 Noun phrase = 220
7.1.4 Adjective phrase = 227
7.1.5 Prepositional phrase = 231
7.1.6 Verb phrase = 232
7.2 Simple clauses and their functional constituents = 240
7.2.1 Subject = 240
7.2.2 Predicate = 241
7.2.3 Objects = 242
7.2.4 Intensive complements = 246
7.2.5 Adverbials = 248
Further exercises = 250
Chapter 8 Complex syntax = 252
8.1 Complex phrases and clauses = 252
8.1.1 Subcategorisationofheadsofphrase = 258
8.1.2 Co-ordination = 262
8.2 Syntactic relatedness = 266
8.2.1 Yes ／ no question formation = 266
8.2.2 Wh questions and wh movement = 269
8.2.3 Relative clauses and wh movement = 273
8.2.4 Commands = 274
8.2.5 Passive = 275
8.2.6 Main and subordinate clauses = 277
8.2.7 Empty constituents = 278
8.2.8 Grammatical change = 280
8.3 Lexicalised phrases and clauses = 282
Further exercises = 284
Glossary = 286
Further reading = 290
Answers to exercises = 291
Index = 337
