CONTENTS
Ⅰ Models and Theories of Human-Computer Interaction = 1
1 Cognitive Systems Engineering = 3
1.1 Introduction = 3
1.2 What is Cognitive Engineering = 5
1.3 The Cognitive System Triad = 8
Demand Characteristics of Problem Solving Habitats = 8
Mismatches in the Cognitive System Triad : Getting Lost = 10
1.4 A Sample of Critical Issues in Cognitive Engineering = 11
What is Expertise and Skill = 11
Exploration Training = 13
Human Error and Person-Machine Mismatches = 14
Brittle Problem Solvers and Unexpected Variability = 17
1.5 Towards Effective Decision Support = 18
What is Good Advice? = 19
Cognitive Tools = 21
Conceptualization Aids = 25
1.6 External Representations and Human Problem Solving = 26
Fixed and Adaptive Collections = 27
Analogical Representations = 29
Integral Displays = 30
Multiple Representations = 32
A Case in Representations Design = 33
1.7 Summary = 34
1.8 References = 34
2 Mental Models in Human-Computer Interaction = 45
2.1 Abstract = 45
2.2 Introduction = 46
2.3 Models of What, Held by Whom? = 46
2.4 Types of Representations of Users' Knowledge = 47
Simple Sequences = 48
Methods and Ways to Choose Among Them = 48
Mental Models = 50
Comparisons = 52
2.5 How User's Knowledge Affects Their Performance = 54
Chaos and misconception in both novices and experts = 54
Skilled performance = 55
2.6 Applying What we Know of the User's Knowledge to Practical Problems = 56
Designing Interfaces = 56
User training = 57
2.7 Research Recommendations = 59
2.8 References = 61
3 Interface Metaphors and User Interface Design = 67
3.1 Introduction = 67
3.2 Approaches to Metaphor = 70
Operational Approaches to Metaphor = 70
Structural Approaches to Metaphor = 71
Pragmatic Approaches to Metaphor = 73
Toward a Theory of Metaphor = 75
3.3 Designing with Metaphors = 76
Identify Possible Metaphors from the User's Point of View = 77
Identify Metaphor／Software Matches with Respect to Representative User Scenarios = 78
Identify Likely Mismatches and their Implications = 79
How to Manage Metaphor Mismatches = 80
3.4 Conclusions = 81
3.5 References = 81
4 Five Paradigms in the Psychology of Programming = 87
4.1 Abstract = 87
4.2 The Paradigms for Research = 87
4.3 Individual Differences = 88
Programming Tests = 88
Programmer Motivation = 90
Individual Differences Summary = 90
4.4 Group Behavior = 91
Group Behavior Summary = 93
4.5 Organizational Behavior = 94
Organizational Behavior Summary = 95
4.6 Human Factors and Cognitive Ergonomics = 96
Requirements and Design Aids = 96
Specification Formats = 96
Programming Languages = 97
Human Factors Summary = 98
4.7 Cognitive Science = 99
Programming Knowledge Structures = 99
Learning to Program = 100
Design Problem Solving = 101
Cognitive Science Summary = 102
4.8 Future Directions in Programming = 102
4.9 References = 103
5 Software Comprehension = 107
5.1 Introduction = 107
5.2 A Review of Software Comprehension Models = 107
5.3 An Integrative Model of Comprehension = 108
5.4 Measures of Software Comprehensibility = 109
Direct Measures = 109
Indirect Measures = 112
5.5 Factors Influencing Software Comprehension = 112
Complexity = 113
Program Structure = 113
Program Form = 114
Problem Type = 115
Documentation = 115
5.6 Implications for Software Development = 118
Complexity = 118
Program Structure = 118
Program Form = 118
Problem Type = 118
Documentation = 118
5.7 Conclusions = 119
5.8 References = 119
6 Direct Manipulation = 123
6.1 Direct Manipulation = 123
Shneiderman's Description of Direct Manipulation = 123
Hutchins, Hollan and Norman : Direct Manipulation Interfaces = 124
Direct Manipulation in a Layer Model of Human-Computer Interaction = 124
Directness = 126
6.2 Design of Direct Manipulation Interfaces = 127
Presentation of Information = 127
Input Devices = 128
Invoking Functions = 129
Generic Operations = 130
Integration of Different Functions = 131
Empirical Studies = 131
6.3 References = 132
7 Towards a Practical GOMS Model Methodology for User Interface Design = 135
7.1 Introduction = 135
The Cognitive Complexity Approach = 135
Problems in Using Cognitive Complexity Models = 136
A Guide to GOMS Model Construction = 137
Will the Methods Actually Work? = 137
Organization of the Chapter = 137
7.2 Overview of the GOMS Task Analysis Approach = 137
What is a GOMS Analysis? = 137
Definitions and a Notation for GOMS Models = 138
Goals = 138
Operators = 138
Methods = 139
Selection Rules = 140
Task Descriptions and Task Instances = 140
7.3 General Issues in GOMS Task Analysis = 141
Judgment Calls = 141
Bypassing Complex Processes = 141
What Tasks Should be Analyzed? = 142
When Can a GOMS Analysis be Done? = 142
7.4 A Procedure for Constructing a GOMS Model = 143
Summary of Procedure = 143
Detailed Description of Procedure = 144
Step A. Choose the Top-Level User's Goals and Method = 144
Step B. Do the Following Recursive Procedure = 144
Step C. Completing the Analysis = 145
Step D. Check Sensitivity to Judgment Calls and Assumptions = 145
Making WM Use Explicit = 146
An Example of Using the Procedure = 146
Description of Methods = 146
Modifications to Show WM Usage = 150
Completing the Analysis = 151
Checking Sensitivity to Judgment Calls = 151
7.5 Using a GOMS Task Analysis = 151
Qualitative Evaluation of a Design = 151
Predicting Human Performance with the Design = 152
Method Learning Time Estimates = 152
Estimating Execution Time = 154
Mental Workload = 155
Suggestions for Revising the Design = 155
Using the Analysis in Documentation = 156
7.6 Acknowledgements = 156
7.7 References = 156
8 Task Allocation and Supervisory Control = 159
8.1 Introduction = 159
8.2 Ten Functions of the Human Supervisor = 162
8.3 Human Supervisor Attention Allocation and Timing = 167
8.4 Factors Which Limit our Ability to Model Supervisory Control Systems = 170
8.5 Social Implications of Supervisory Control = 170
8.6 Conclusions = 172
8.7 References = 172
9 Information Technology and Work = 175
9.1 Introduction = 175
9.2 Different Approaches to the Study of Cognitive Systems = 176
HCI, Human-Computer Interaction = 176
Cognitive Sciences = 177
Cognitive Engineering = 177
Research Problems of Cognitive Engineering = 177
9.3 Design or Evaluation = 179
9.4 A Conceptual Framework for the Analysis of Cognitive Functions = 181
Problem space = 181
The decision task = 182
Mental information Processing strategies = 184
The user's cognitive level of interpretation = 185
Some implications of the cognitive functional analysis in design = 185
9.5 A Specific Example : Process Control = 188
Knowledge-based Diagnosis = 188
Rule-based Diagnosis = 190
Heuristics for State Identification = 192
9.6 Disturbance Control In Process Plants = 194
9.7 Concluding Remarks = 200
9.8 References = 200
Ⅱ User Interface Design = 203
10 Design of Menus = 205
10.1 To Menu or Not to Menu = 205
Defining a Menu-Driven Interface = 205
Assumed Tradeoffs Betweens Menus and Commands = 206
Empirical Comparisons of Menus versus Commands = 206
A Research Strategy for Investigating Interface Type = 209
10.2 Designing a Single Menu Panel = 209
Three Types of Search and Comparison Operations = 209
Identity Matching = 210
Equivalence Matching = 211
Class-Inclusion Matching = 212
Guidelines for Organizing and Naming the Options on a Single Panel = 215
10.3 Choosing a Selection Technique = 216
Digit versus Letter Identifiers = 216
Entering Identifiers versus other Selection Techniques = 217
Guidelines for Choosing a Selection Technique = 218
10.4 Organization and Navigation Between Menu Panels = 219
Depth versus Breadth in a Hierarchical Menu Structure = 219
Aids to Navigation = 225
Guidelines for Organizing the Entire Set of Menu Panels = 232
10.5 Author Notes = 233
10.6 References = 233
11 Command Names = 237
11.1 Introduction = 237
11.2 Designing Namesets = 238
What Designers Need to Keep in Mind = 239
What People Do when they Create Names = 239
What Designers Do when they Create Names = 240
11.3 Experimental Contributions = 241
Interpreting Experiments = 241
Differing Designs of Command Namesets Used in Research = 242
Differing Characteristics of Participants in the Differing Task Domains of Research Experiments = 243
Differing Measures of User Performance = 244
Summary = 245
Natural Names versus System-oriented or Arbitrary Names = 245
Attributes of Names : Specificity, Frequency and Concreteness = 245
Abbreviation = 246
Effects of Nameset on Individual Names = 247
Effects of Task Structure on the Use of Names = 248
11.4 Using Research Knowledge in Design : Guidelines, Tools, and Models = 249
Guidelines = 249
Background : Choosing and Structuring a Command Language = 249
Naming to Facilitate the Name-Operation Mapping = 249
Naming to Anticipate User Variability and Permit Customization = 250
Context of Command Name Use : Layout, Prompts, Help = 250
Designing the System for User Error = 250
Tools and Models = 250
11.5 Design Problems, Approaches, and Unexplored Topics = 251
11.6 Acknowledgment = 252
11.7 References = 252
12 Query Language = 257
12.1 Introduction = 257
12.2 Basic Notions = 258
Query Languages = 258
Language Design Issues = 258
12.3 Measuring Ease-Of-Use = 260
Human Factors Methodology = 260
Human Factors Methodology Applied to Query Languages = 260
12.4 Query Language Experiments = 260
Evaluating Query Languages = 261
SQL = 261
QBE = 262
Comparing Two or More Languages = 263
Investigating Basic Issues = 264
Data Models = 265
A Data Model Comparison Without Query Language = 266
12.5 Improving Query Language Design = 267
Identifying Problems = 267
Isolating Causes = 268
Suggesting Improvements = 269
12.6 Models = 270
Users' Conceptual Models = 270
Models of the Process of Query Writing = 270
12.7 Recent Trends = 271
Comparing Formal Query Languages = 271
Comparing Natural Language with Formal Language Querying = 272
Improving Query Language Design = 273
Comparing Data Models = 273
Pragmatics of Testing = 273
User Studies and Models = 273
Predictive Models = 274
12.8 Implications For Design of Computer Systems = 274
What Do We Know = 274
Assessing the Numerical Results = 275
Assessing the Claims = 275
12.9 Some Research Directions = 276
12.10 Acknowledgments = 277
12.11 References = 277
13 Using Natural Language Interfaces = 281
13.1 Introduction = 281
Habitability = 282
13.2 Evaluation Issues = 283
13.3 Evaluations of Prototype and Commercial Systems = 284
Laboratory Evaluations = 285
Field Studies = 287
13.4 Design Issues = 289
Artificial versus Natural Language = 289
What is Natural? = 291
Restrictions on Vocabulary = 292
Restrictions on Syntax = 292
Functional Restrictions = 293
Effects of Feedback = 294
Empirically Derived Grammars = 295
13.5 Design Recommendations = 296
13.6 Conclusion = 297
13.7 Acknowledgments = 298
13.8 References = 298
14 Systems Design for Automated Speech Recognition = 301
14.1 Introduction = 301
14.2 Speech Recognition Technology = 302
Technological Limitations of Current Systems = 303
Historic Perspective of the Development of ASR = 304
14.3 Recognition Accuracy = 304
Vocabulary Design = 305
Application Tasks = 306
Environmental Factors = 306
14.4 Analysis of Task Composition = 308
14.5 Speaking Patterns and Training = 309
Feedback and Error Correction = 310
14.6 Task Analysis and Implementation of Voice I／O = 311
14.7 Future Research Needs = 312
Technological Needs = 312
Human Factors Research Needs = 313
14.8 Appendix : Glossary = 314
14.9 References = 315
15 Applying Speech Synthesis to User Interfaces = 321
15.1 Introduction = 321
Chapter Overview = 322
15.2 Advantages of Speech Output = 322
Universality of Spoken Language = 322
Speech Operates over Distances = 322
User Free to Process Information in other Modalities = 322
15.3 Disadvantages of Speech Output = 323
Large Bandwidth Requirements for Storage and Transmission = 323
Faster Comprehension of Written than Spoken Language = 323
Speech in an Interface can be Annoying = 323
15.4 Talking Tutor : A Good Example of Using Voice Interface = 324
15.5 Interaction of Application's Vocabulary Demands and the Type of Speech Used = 325
Vocabulary Demands : Fixed Message vs. Unrestricted Text = 325
Examples of Applications with Fixed Messages = 325
Quality of Speech Depends on the Application Demands = 325
15.6 Unrestricted Text-to-Speech Synthesis = 326
Major Steps Involved in Text-to-Speech Synthesis = 326
Transforming Text to a Phonetic Spelling = 327
Selecting a Basic Unit for Synthesis = 328
Synthesizing Sentences : Modeling Intonation = 334
Role of Paralanguage in Synthetic Speech = 336
15.7 Assessing the Quality of Synthetic Speech = 337
Traditional Measures of Speech Quality = 337
Intelligibility of Synthetic Speech = 337
Increasing the Sensitivity of Evaluation Measures = 338
15.8 Future Directions in Speech Synthesis = 339
15.9 Acknowledgements = 340
15.10 References = 340
16 Online Aiding for Human-Computer Interfaces = 345
16.1 Abstract = 345
16.2 Problems in Online Aiding = 345
16.3 A Summary of Prototypical Online Aiding Dialogues = 346
Online Assistance Dialogues = 347
Online Instructional Dialogues = 350
16.4 A Research and Design Framework for Online Aiding = 353
A Theory-Based Task-Analytic Model for Online Aiding = 354
Predicting Usability for Online Aiding = 359
Predicting usability problems for online aiding = 359
16.5 Conclusions = 361
16.6 Acknowledgments = 362
16.7 References = 362
17 Graphic Challenges in Designing Object-oriented User Interfaces = 365
17.1 Introduction = 365
17.2 Object-Oriented Direct Manipulation and Enabling Technologies = 365
17.3 Graphic Challanges = 366
Old Problems = 366
New Problems = 367
17.4 Illustrations = 367
The Illusion Of Manipulable Objects = 367
Visual Order and User Focus = 368
Revealed Structure = 370
Consistent and Appropriate Graphic Vocabulary = 371
Match the Medium = 371
17.5 Symbolic and Analogic User Interfaces = 372
17.6 Speculations = 374
17.7 Acknowledgements = 374
17.8 Notes on References = 375
17.9 References = 375
18 Screen Design = 377
18.1 Introduction = 377
Importance of Screen Design = 377
Historical Perspective = 377
An Overview of the Literature = 378
18.2 Screen Design Issues and Techniques = 382
Amount of Information to Present = 382
Grouping of Information = 387
Highlighting of Information = 391
Placement and Sequence of Information = 393
Spatial Relationships among Elements = 395
Presentation of Text = 397
Uses of Graphics = 399
18.3 The Screen Design Process = 404
Requirements and Constraints Analysis = 405
Task Analysis and Scenario Development = 405
Development of Design Rules = 405
Development of Implementation Philosophy = 405
Early Design, Prototyping, and Evaluation = 405
Full-scale Prototyping and Implementation = 406
18.4 Future Directions = 406
18.5 References = 407
19 Taking Panes : Issues in the Design of Windowing Systems = 413
19.1 Introduction = 413
The Appeal of Windowing = 414
Constraints on the Design of Windowing Systems = 415
An Empirical Investigation of the Value of Windowing = 418
19.2 Characterizing Windowing Systems = 419
Presentation Styles = 419
Interaction Styles = 423
Set of Operations = 426
19.3 Future Directions = 432
Grouping Windows : Workspaces, Working Sets, and Rooms = 432
User-customized Windows = 432
User Training Techniques = 433
19.4 Research Agenda and Conclusions = 433
19.5 References = 434
20 Image Quality = 437
20.1 Introduction = 437
20.2 Theoretical Bases and Relevant Research = 438
Spatial Vision = 439
Spatial Image Quality = 444
Temporal Vision = 451
Chromatic Vision = 454
20.3 Applications to Computer System Display Design = 458
Resolution = 458
Raster Modulation／Active Area = 461
Luminance and Contrast = 462
Polarity = 463
Image Stability(Jitter) = 463
Flicker = 464
Color Selection and Contrast = 465
Character Design = 465
Text Spacing = 467
Glare Control = 467
20.4 Future Developments = 469
Flat Panel Displays = 469
Stereoscopic Displays = 470
Touch Input Devices = 470
Virtual Image Displays = 471
Image Quality Measurement = 472
20.5 Acknowledgements = 472
20.6 References = 472
21 Keys and Keyboards = 475
21.1 Introduction = 475
Design Criteria = 476
21.2 Keyboard Layouts = 476
The QWERTY Layout = 476
The Dvorak Simplified Keyboard Layout = 476
Conclusions on Dvorak Simplified Keyboard = 478
Alphabetical Keyboards = 479
Other Keyboard Layouts = 479
21.3 Data-Entry Keypads = 479
Layout of Numbers and Letters = 480
Multifunction Keypads = 480
21.4 Physical Features of Keys and Keyboards = 481
Keyboard Height and Slope = 481
Size of the Keyboard = 482
Detachable Keyboards = 482
Keyboard Profile = 483
Key Size and Shape = 483
Key Force, Travel and Tactile Feedback = 484
Auditory Feedback = 485
Visual Feedback = 486
Error-Avoidance Features = 486
Color and Labeling = 487
21.5 Innovations in Keyboard Design = 487
Split and Tilt Keyboards = 487
New Methods of Typing = 490
21.6 Summary = 491
21.7 Acknowledgements = 491
21.8 References = 491
22 Input Devices = 495
22.1 Introduction = 495
22.2 Design Considerations = 496
Touch Screen Devices = 496
Touch Screen Applications = 499
Light Pens = 500
Graphic Tablets = 501
Applications = 504
Mice = 504
Trackballs = 506
Joysticks = 507
22.3 Novel Input Techniques = 508
Pro Pointer = 509
Footmouse = 509
Eye-controlled Input = 509
Gesture-based Input = 510
22.4 Empirical Comparisons = 511
Target Acquisition Tasks = 511
Menu and Text Selection Tasks = 512
Text Entering and Editing Tasks = 513
Continuous Tracking Tasks = 514
22.5 Conclusion = 514
22.6 References = 516
23 VDT Workstation Design = 521
23.1 Introduction = 521
23.2 A Problem With Many Interactions = 522
23.3 Work Task = 522
23.4 The Person = 523
23.5 Positioning The Body Relative To The Computer = 524
23.6 Body Postures = 526
23.7 "Healthy" Body Postures = 526
23.8 Experimental Studies = 528
23.9 Sitting Postures and Workstation Design = 531
23.10 Ergonomic Design of VDT Workstations = 532
Seat Design = 534
Visual Targets = 535
Adjustment Features = 535
Stand-up Workstations = 535
23.11 Summary = 536
23.12 References = 536
Ⅲ Individual Differences and Training = 541
24 Individual Differences In Human-Computer Interaction = 543
24.1 Introduction = 543
Plan for This Chapter = 543
24.2 How Big are Individual Differences in Human-Computer Interaction? = 544
Selecting Computer-Based Tasks to Analyze = 544
Statistics to Characterize Individual Differences = 544
Text Editing Performance = 546
Information Search = 547
Programming = 549
Summary = 551
Putting these Results into Perspective = 551
24.3 What Predicts Differences in Performance? = 552
Experience = 552
Technical Aptitudes = 553
Other Aptitudes = 555
Discussion of the Effects of Aptitudes = 555
Age = 556
Domain Specific Knowledge = 557
Personality and Affect = 557
Which Predictors Make a Big Difference? = 558
24.4 Accommodating User Differences = 558
Robust Interfaces = 558
User Prototypes = 560
Adaptive Trainer Systems = 561
Automated "Mastory Learning" = 562
24.5 Goals in Designing for User Differences = 564
Goal #1 : Aid Users Experiencing Greatest Difficulty = 564
Goal #2 : Enable Users to Exploit Domain Knowledge = 564
Achieving the Design Goals = 565
Conclusion = 565
24.6 Acknowledgements = 565
24.7 References = 565
25 From Novice to Expert = 569
25.1 Introduction = 569
Types of Knowledge in Human-Computer Interaction = 569
Computer Interaction = 569
Data Base = 570
25.2 Expert-Novice Differences in Problem Solving = 570
Recall Tasks = 570
Protocol Tasks = 570
Sorting Tasks = 571
Implications of Research on Expert-Novice Differences in Problem Solving = 572
25.3 Expert-Novice Programmer Differences in Syntactic Knowledge = 572
What is Syntactic Knowledge? = 572
Research on Differences in Syntactic Knowledge = 572
Implications of Research on Syntactic Knowledge = 572
25.4 Expert-Novice Programmer Differences in Semantic Knowledge = 573
What is Semantic Knowledge? = 573
Research on Differences in Semantic Knowledge = 573
Implications of Research on Semantic Knowledge = 575
25.5 Expert-Novice Programmer Differences in Schematic Knowledge = 575
What is Schematic Knowledge? = 575
Research on Differences in Schematic Knowledge = 575
Implications of Research on Schematic Knowledge = 576
25.6 Expert-Novice Programmer Differences in Strategic Knowledge = 576
What is Strategic Knowledge? = 576
Research on Differences in Strategic Knowledge = 577
Implications of Research on Strategic Knowledge = 577
25.7 Conclusion = 578
Theoretical Implications = 578
Research Implications = 578
Practical Implications = 578
25.8 Acknowledgement = 579
25.9 References = 579
26 Microcomputers and the Elderly = 581
26.1 Introduction = 581
26.2 Use of Computer Technology by Older Adults = 582
Employment = 582
Communication and Education = 584
26.3 Aging as a Process = 585
Aging Defined = 585
26.4 Sensory Process = 586
Vision = 586
Audition = 589
Body Size and Strength = 590
26.5 Cognitive Functioning = 590
Speed of Responding = 590
Perceptual Abilities = 592
26.6 Memory and Learning = 593
26.7 Summary = 595
26.8 References = 595
27 Computer-Based Instruction = 599
27.1 Introduction = 599
27.2 Computer Assisted Instruction = 600
Examples of CAI Systems = 601
Advantages of CAI = 604
Disadvantages of CAI = 604
Future of CAI = 605
27.3 Computer Managed Instruction = 607
Student Viewpoint = 607
Instructor Viewpoint = 607
Administrator Viewpoint = 607
Example of A CMI System : AIS = 608
Evaluation of CMI System = 608
27.4 Intelligent Computer Assisted Instruction = 609
Characteristics of ICAI = 609
STEAMER Example = 611
Evaluation = 612
Future Research = 612
27.5 Computer-Based Instruction Issues and Research = 615
Individual Differences = 615
Knowledge of Results(KR) = 617
Amount of Practice = 617
Augmented Feedback = 617
Part-Whole Training = 617
Adaptive Training = 617
Conceptual Representations = 617
Motivation = 623
27.6 Summary = 623
27.7 References = 623
28 Issues of Content and Presentation in Document Design = 629
28.1 Introduction = 629
28.2 Decisions about Content = 632
Evidence for "enriched" manuals = 632
A precis does not help the reader = 633
Evidence for Minimal Manuals = 633
Conclusions about content = 636
28.3 Issues of Presentation = 636
Medium = 636
Mode of Representation = 638
Language = 639
Conclusions about presentation = 640
28.4 Iterative Design Processes = 640
Conclusions about testing = 645
28.5 Will documentation always be needed? = 645
Conclusions = 646
28.6 References = 647
Ⅳ Applications of Computer Technology = 653
29 Text Editors = 655
29.1 Text Editor s1 = 655
29.2 Varieties of Text Editors = 656
Users and Their Tasks = 656
Effect of Hardware = 656
29.3 Fundamental Issues = 656
Relationship with Other Applications = 657
The Process of Editing = 657
29.4 Command Language = 658
29.5 Content = 661
Model of Data = 661
Display of Text = 662
Operations = 663
29.6 Appearance = 664
Model of Appearance Information = 664
Display of Formatting = 665
Operations = 667
29.7 Advanced Features = 667
Special Applications = 667
Programming = 668
29.8 Evaluation = 669
29.9 Conclusion = 669
29.10 Acknowledgements = 670
29.11 References = 670
30 Textual Information Retrieval = 673
30.1 Introduction = 673
30.2 Structured Databases = 674
Query Languages = 674
New Directions in Query Languages = 675
Menu-Based Systems = 677
New Directions and Improvements in Menu-based Systems = 679
30.3 Bibliographic／Full-Text Information Retrieval = 680
Keyword-based Retrieval Systems = 680
Evaluation of Keyword Retrieval Systems = 680
Review of Research in Automatic Indexing = 682
Boolean vs. Graded Document Similarity = 682
Summary of Other Indexing Experiments = 683
Improving Retrieval = 684
Evaluation Revisited = 687
30.4 New Developments and Frontiers = 687
Richer Connections／Hypertext = 687
Online Documents and Books = 689
AI Methods in Information Science = 690
Graphical Connections／Spatial Data Management = 692
Customization／Selective Presentation of Information = 693
30.5 The Future of Information Retrieval = 694
30.6 References = 694
31 Cognitive Aspects of Computer Aided Design = 701
31.1 Introduction = 701
31.2 Computer Aided Design and its Applications = 701
What is Computer Aided Design? = 701
CAD Systems = 702
31.3 Design Engineering and Drawing Work = 703
31.4 The CAD-User's System Interaction = 703
System to User Communication = 703
User to System Communication = 704
31.5 What are the Advantages of CAD? = 704
Two-dimensional CAD = 704
Three-dimensional CAD = 704
31.6 Some Cognitive Characteristics of CAD = 705
Command Complexity = 705
Surveying Complicated Parts = 705
Response Time = 705
Strategy Choices in CAD = 705
31.7 The User's Mental Models = 706
The User's Model of the CAD System = 706
The User's Model of the Object and Final Product = 706
31.8 CAD and Problem Solving = 706
Problem Spaces and Problem Solving Heuristics = 706
Some Aspects on CAD Systems as Problem Solving Instruments = 707
31.9 Concluding Remarks = 708
31.10 References = 708
32 Human-Computer Interaction in Architectural Design = 709
32.1 Introduction = 709
32.2 Architectural Design : Some Issues in Human-Computer Interaction = 709
A Shift in Focus : CAAD and quality = 710
32.3 A Research Program = 711
32.4 The Social and Organizational Implications of CAAD Systems = 712
32.5 User Education and Training for CAAD Systems : The System Tutor = 713
On-line Documentation and Professional Legal Liability = 714
On-line Teaching Software = 714
32.6 Advanced Interactive Systems for CAAD = 714
The Hardware Interface = 715
The Software Interface = 715
32.7 The Design Interface, Design Modelling, and Design Cognition = 719
Design Research and the Study of Decision Making in Design = 719
Architectural Design Modelling and Graphic Representations = 721
Value Judgment in Architectural Design = 722
32.8 Conclusion = 724
32.9 Acknowledgment = 724
32.10 References = 724
33 Human-Computer Interaction In Facilities Layout = 729
33.1 Introduction to Facilities Layout Design = 729
33.2 Modelling the Block Layout Problem = 730
Graphical Techniques = 730
Travel Charting = 730
The Quadratic Assignment Model Graph Theory = 731
Computerized Layout Routines = 732
33.3 Human Versus Computer Methods = 732
33.4 Human-Computer Interactive Methods = 733
Aiding the Human = 733
33.5 The Human-Computer Interactive System = 735
33.6 References = 735
34 Robot Programming = 737
34.1 Introduction = 737
34.2 Programming Considerations = 738
Feasibility = 738
Infrequency = 738
Hybrids = 739
Other Automation = 739
Settings = 739
Data Sources for Robot Control = 739
Types of Robots = 741
Varieties of Application Programs = 744
Where Do Programs Originate? = 745
Who Programs? = 745
34.3 Human Factors Investigations = 746
Teach Pendants = 746
Teaching Arms = 748
Computer Terminals = 748
Controller Panel = 748
Software = 748
34.4 Desirable Research = 750
Programming Configurations = 750
Skill Requirements = 750
Performance Measurement = 752
Design Issues = 752
Procedural Issues = 752
34.5 Conclusion = 752
34.6 References = 753
Ⅴ Tools for Design and Evaluation = 755
35 How to Design Usable Systems = 757
35.1 Introduction = 757
Overview = 758
Usability Has Many Aspects = 758
Four System Design Principles = 759
Usability design Phases = 759
35.2 Behavioral Principles of Design = 759
Beyond Standards, Guidelines, Etc. = 759
Principle 1. Early and Continual Focus on Users = 760
Methods to Carry Out Early Focus on Users = 762
Principle 2. Integrated Design = 766
Methods to Carry Out Integrated Design = 766
Principle 3. Early-and Continual-User Testing = 768
Methods to Carry Out Early and Continual User Testing = 768
Principle 4. Iterative Design = 773
Methods to Carry Out Iterative Design = 773
Evaluation of Human Factors Principles = 775
35.3 Starting Points = 777
Define the System = 778
Follow-on Systems = 778
New Influential Systems = 778
New Technologies = 778
User Circumstances = 778
Journals, Proceedings, Demonstrations = 778
Other Designers and Consultants = 778
Workshops and Short Courses = 779
Standards, Guidelines, Development Procedures = 779
35.4 User Interface Standards = 779
Status and Evaluation = 779
35.5 Handbooks and Guidelines = 780
Status and Evaluation = 782
35.6 Development Rules and Procedures = 782
Description and Sources = 782
Evaluation = 783
35.7 Formal Models for Design = 783
Evaluation = 784
35.8 Summary and Conclusions = 784
35.9 Acknowledgements = 784
35.10 Trademarks = 785
35.11 References = 785
36 Usability Engineering : Our Experience and Evolution = 791
36.1 Introduction = 791
Purpose of this Chapter = 791
A Framework for Proceeding, Not a Recipe = 792
Background of our Approach = 792
36.2 Part 1. Practical Experience in Usability Engineering = 792
Our View of Engineering = 792
The Role of Objectives in Development = 793
Developing Usability Specifications = 794
An Evolving Understanding of What Counts as Success = 798
An Example of a Usability Specification Table = 798
Using Usability Objectives During the Development Process = 798
36.3 Part 2. Analysis of our Progress : The Need for Contextual Research = 805
Historical Background : Shifting Perspectives = 805
Our Conclusion : A Context Sensitive Research Approach is Needed = 808
36.4 Part 3. Contextual Research : Exposition and Prospects = 809
Uncovering Experience = 809
Interpreting the Data = 812
A Contextual Example = 812
The Problem of Generalizability : The Emergence of Usability Concepts = 812
Integrating Contextual Research Into the Engineering Process = 813
Usability Engineering In the Development Cycle : A Vision = 814
36.5 Summary = 815
36.6 Acknowledgments = 816
36.7 References = 816
37 Software Tools for User Interface Development = 819
37.1 Introduction = 819
Design, Implementation,, and Evaluation = 820
Tools versus Methods = 821
A Perspective on Previous Work = 822
37.2 The User Interface Management System Approach = 823
Device Interfaces = 824
Application Interfaces = 824
Dialogue Control = 825
Implementation Functionality = 825
Dialogue Types = 826
37.3 Future Developments in User Interface Tools = 829
Integrating Design and Evaluation Tools into Development = 829
Expert Systems = 830
Enforcement of Standard and Rules = 830
The Promise of Object-Oriented Development = 830
37.4 Acknowledgement = 830
37.5 References = 831
38 A Task Analytic Approach to Dialogue Design = 835
38.1 Introduction = 835
38.2 Traditional Task Analysis Methods = 836
38.3 Operations Concept Definition = 840
Importance of User Involvement = 840
Information-Processing Task Analysis = 842
Conceptual Model of Interaction = 846
38.4 Computer-Human Interface／Task Analysis = 847
CHI／TA Conceptual Design Process = 847
Semantic Design Process for the User Input Language = 847
Semantic and Syntactic Design Process for Display Properties = 850
Syntactic and Lexical Design of the User Input Language = 850
Syntactic Design of the User Display Language = 852
Lexical Design of the User Display Language = 852
Result of CHI／TA = 854
38.5 Conclusions = 856
38.6 References = 856
39 Rapid Prototyping for User Interface Design = 859
39.1 Abstract = 859
39.2 Interface Design As Tangible Speculation = 860
Rapid Prototyping Defined = 860
The Psychology of Prototyping = 860
The Benefits of User Interface Prototyping = 861
What Can be Prototyped = 862
The User Interface Specification = 862
39.3 How to Prototype = 863
The Random Walk Approach = 864
Top Down Design = 864
Rapid Prototyping from the Bottom Up = 864
Integrated Design Environments = 865
39.4 Classes of Prototyping Techniques = 865
Slide Show Techniques = 865
Wizard of Oz Techniques = 865
Fully Animated Prototypes = 865
39.5 Rapid Prototyping and the User Interface Management System = 865
39.6 Designers That Use or Need Prototyping Tools = 866
39.7 Types of Prototyping Tools = 866
The Tool Kit Approach = 866
The Parts Kit Approach = 866
Animation Language Metaphor = 867
39.8 Anatomy of a User Interface Rapid Prototyping Tool = 867
Graphical Specification = 868
Logical Specification = 868
Formal Grammars = 868
State Tables = 869
State Transition Networks = 869
Behavior by Example = 869
Binding It All Together : The Run Time Unit = 870
39.9 Built-In Instrumentation of the User Interface = 870
39.10 Automatic Evaluation Techniques for User Interface Design = 871
Artificial Intelligence in Rapid Prototyping Systems = 871
39.11 Conclusions = 873
39.12 References = 873
40 Standards Versus Guidelines for Designing User Interface Software = 877
40.1 Abstract = 877
40.2 User Interface Software = 877
40.3 Design Standards = 878
40.4 Hardware Versus Software = 878
40.5 Standards Versus Guidelines, Rules and Algorithms = 880
40.6 The Knowledge Base for Standards and Guidelines = 884
40.7 Application of Design Guidelines = 885
40.8 Adaptability or Anarchy? = 887
40.9 Acknowledgment = 887
40.10 References = 888
41 Software Evaluation Methodologies = 891
41.1 Introduction = 891
41.2 Theory-Based Evaluation = 893
41.3 User-Based Evaluations = 895
41.4 Surveys and Questionnaires = 896
41.5 Verbal Reports = 897
41.6 Controlled Experimental Studies = 898
41.7 Task-Based Evaluations = 899
41.8 Informal Design Review = 900
41.9 Formal Design Analysis - GOMS = 900
41.10 Production System Analysis = 901
41.11 Summary = 902
41.12 References = 903
42 Research Methods in Human-Computer Interaction = 905
42.1 Introduction : For Whom and Why and What = 905
Why Research is Important in Human Computer Interaction = 905
42.2 Goals for Research in Human Computer Interaction = 906
Relative Evaluation of Systems or Features = 907
Determining what a System should do = 907
Discovering Relevant Scientific Principles and Testing Models = 907
Establishing Explicit Standards or Guidelines for Design = 907
Being Clear about a Goal is the First Step towards it = 907
42.3 Special Problems of doing Research in Human-Computer Interaction = 907
42.4 Research Designs and General Methodology = 908
General Strategy Issues = 909
Invention and Specification Oriented Methods = 911
Design Oriented Research Methods = 913
General Principle Oriented Methods = 917
42.5 Measurement and Analysis = 918
Preliminaries : What to Measure and How many Observations = 918
Data Quality = 921
Reliability = 921
Statistical Analysis = 922
42.6 Conclusions and Summary = 926
42.7 References = 927
Ⅵ Artificial Intelligence = 929
43 Human Factors Issues in Expert Systems = 931
43.1 Introduction = 931
43.2 What is an Expert System? = 932
43.3 A User-Oriented Taxonomy of Expert Systems = 932
Type of Application = 932
Source of Pacing = 932
Type of Knowledge = 932
43.4 Task Decomposition = 933
43.5 Function Allocation = 934
43.6 Design Philosophy = 934
Tools versus Solutions = 936
Design of Displays for Expert Systems = 937
Displays for Data Input = 937
Displays for Explanation = 937
Expert System Usability Issues = 939
Keeping the User Current = 939
Expert System Reliability = 939
Workload = 939
43.7 Summary = 940
43.8 References = 940
44 Natural Language Interface Systems = 941
44.1 Introduction = 941
44.2 Syntax and Parsing = 943
Introduction = 943
Grammatical Formalisms = 945
Semantic Grammars = 946
44.3 Semantic Interpretation = 946
Representing the Meaning of a Question = 946
The Semantic Interpretation Process = 948
44.4 Semantic Transformations = 949
Introduction = 949
Declarative Specifications Of The Relation Between EFL and DBL = 950
44.5 The Ambiguity Problem = 951
Anomaly Checking = 951
Presupposition Failure = 951
44.6 Discourse = 952
44.7 Acknowledgements = 952
44.8 References = 952
45 Human Factors in Knowledge Acquisition = 957
45.1 Introduction = 957
45.2 Building an Expert System = 958
Selection of Experts = 958
Knowledge Acquisition in the early Stages of System Building = 959
45.3 Specific Elicitation Techniques = 960
Introduction = 960
Retrospective Comment Analysis = 961
Thinking-Aloud Protocols = 963
Interruption Analysis = 964
On-line Comment Analysis = 964
Incremental Simulation = 965
Mixed-Method Approaches = 966
45.4 Summary = 967
45.5 Acknowledgements = 967
45.6 References = 968
46 Intelligent Interface Design = 969
46.1 Introduction = 970
46.2 The Evolution of the Interface = 970
General Functions of the Interface = 971
46.3 The Concept of Intelligent Interfaces = 972
What is an Intelligent Interface? = 972
What are the Components of an Intelligent Interface? = 976
When is an Intelligent Interface Needed? = 979
46.4 Intelligent Interface Models = 980
Information Retrieval Search Intermediaries = 980
Expert Systems as Intelligent Interfaces = 980
46.5 Supplementary Techniques for Intelligent Interfaces = 981
Approach 1 : Natural Language Interfaces = 981
Approach 2 : Hypemedia = 983
Approach 3 : Expert Systems = 984
Approach 4 : Knowledge Acquisition = 985
Approach 5 : Dialog Design = 985
46.6 Intelligent Interface Technology = 985
Necessity 1 : Task Analysis = 985
Necessity 2 : Expert Systems = 985
Necessity 3 : Interface Design Tools = 986
46.7 The Process of Building an Intelligent Interface = 986
Task Analysis = 986
User Model = 986
Development of Common Interface Model = 986
Conceptual Design = 986
Building the Task Machine = 986
Prototyping the Interface = 987
Evaluating the Interface = 987
Redesign = 987
46.8 A Case Study in Intelligent Interface Design = 987
Task Analysis = 988
Common Interface Model = 988
User Model = 989
Conceptual Design = 989
Building the Task Machine = 989
Prototyping the Interface = 989
Evaluating the Interface = 989
46.9 Summary and Conclusions = 990
Future Directions = 990
46.10 References = 991
47 Decision Support Systems : Designing to Extend the Cognitive Limits = 997
47.1 Introduction = 997
47.2 Decision Support and Human Decision Processes : Some Definitions = 998
Naturalistic Decision Processes = 999
47.3 The Decision Support System Design Process = 1001
47.4 Step 1 : Definition and Decomposition of the Decision Problem = 1003
Goal Decomposition = 1003
Decision Situation Description = 1004
47.5 Step 2 : Analysis of Decision Situations = 1008
Identifying Decision-Making Limitations and Constraints = 1008
47.6 Step 3 : Defining Decision Support System Functionality = 1010
47.7 Step 4 : Selecting DSS Technology within Behavioral and Cognitive Constrants = 1011
47.8 Selecting Process Models for the Dss = 1013
47.9 Selecting Value Models for the DSS = 1015
47.10 Selecting Information Management Tools for the DSS = 1017
Data Management Techniques = 1018
Knowledge Management Techniques = 1019
47.11 Selecting Automated Analysis／Reasoning Techniques for the DSS = 1020
Numeric Reasoning Techniques = 1022
Symbolic Analysis Techniques = 1023
47.12 Selecting a Representation Aid for the DSS = 1024
47.13 Selecting a Judgement Refinement／Amplification Tool for the DSS = 1026
47.14 Summary and Conclusions = 1028
47.15 Acknowledgements = 1028
47.16 References = 1028
Ⅶ Psychological and Organizational Issues = 1031
48 Social Aspects of Computer Use = 1033
48.1 Introduction = 1033
48.2 Myth Number 1. Employees React with Irrational Fears when Computers are Introduced = 1033
48.3 Myth Number 2. Employee Participation in Technological Change is Needless = 1034
48.4 Myth Number 3. Unions, Impede Technological and Economic Progress = 1036
48.5 Myth Number 4. Planning for Technological Change should Rely more on Experts than End Users = 1038
48.6 Myth Number 5. When Possible use Technology to Create more Desk-type Jobs = 1039
48.7 Myth Number 6. In Job Design, Remember to Keep it Simple = 1040
48.8 Myth Number 7. New Policies and Closer Supervision are Proven Methods for Improving Productivity and Eliminating Waste = 1044
48.9 Myth Number 8. One Person with a Computer can Outperform a Whole Team = 1045
48.10 Summary = 1047
48.11 References = 1048
49 Information Technology and Work Organization = 1051
49.1 Abstract = 1051
49.2 Introduction = 1051
49.3 Theoretical Bases = 1052
Perspectives on Organizational Structure = 1052
Perspectives on Technology = 1053
The Link Between Structure and Technology = 1054
49.4 Survey of Empirical Research = 1055
Rationalist Perspective = 1056
Information Processing Perspective = 1060
Motivational Perspective = 1061
Political Perspective = 1064
49.5 Implications for Further Research = 1065
49.6 Implications for the Design of Systems and Work = 1065
Rationalist Perspective = 1065
Information Processing Perspective = 1065
Motivational Perspective = 1066
Political Perspective = 1066
49.7 Conclusion = 1066
49.8 References = 1067
50 Socio-Issues Related to Home-Based Work = 1071
50.1 Introduction = 1071
50.2 Characteristics of the Home-Based Work Force = 1072
50.3 Research Concerns = 1073
50.4 Labor Unions and Disabled Workers = 1074
50.5 Implications for Design of Computer Systems = 1075
50.6 Markets For Computer Systems = 1075
Systems Installation in Private Dwellings for Full-Time Home-Based Employees = 1076
50.7 New Directions = 1076
50.8 Research on Technology = 1077
50.9 Organizational Technology = 1077
50.10 Research on Home-Based Work = 1078
50.11 References = 1078
51 Factors Influencing Acceptance of Computer-Based Innovations = 1081
51.1 Introduction = 1081
51.2 Innovation Acceptance Theory = 1082
Initial Awareness = 1083
Need for Improvement = 1083
Level of Interest = 1083
Information Acquisition = 1085
Perceived Features and Perceived Need = 1085
Experience With Similar Developments = 1085
User Participation In Design = 1085
Personal Risk = 1085
Availability of Support = 1085
Subjective Evaluation = 1086
Organizational Climate = 1086
The Role of Authority = 1087
Summary of the Theoretical Process = 1087
51.3 Planning for Innovation Acceptance = 1087
Communicate with Potential Users = 1089
User Involvement During Development = 1089
Design for Acceptance = 1091
51.4 A Study of New Decision Support Systems = 1091
Military Officers are Basically Optimistic About The Potential Value of AI Decision Aids = 1092
Understanding the Decision Rules is Essential = 1092
The Best Available Expertise Does Not Imply Operational Validity = 1095
Reduction of the Decision Maker's Mental Workload = 1095
Value of AI Under High Stress Conditions = 1097
Perceived Value of AI to Officers of Different Experience Levels = 1097
Concern About Undue Influence = 1099
Undermining of Decision Making Authority = 1099
Summary = 1101
Interface Design Issues = 1101
Nature of Recommendation／Situation Assessment Outputs = 1101
Probability or Confidence Estimates = 1101
Addition／Deletion of Decision Rules = 1103
51.5 Summary of Results = 1103
Perceived Positive Attributes of AI Decision Aids = 1103
Negative Perceptions of AI Decision Aids = 1103
General Design Issues = 1104
51.6 Conclusion = 1105
51.7 References = 1105
52 Technological Innovation and Organizational Ecology = 1107
52.1 Abstract = 1107
52.2 Introduction = 1107
52.3 Technological Feasibility = 1109
Bridge Distance and Time = 1109
Enormous Data Storage Capability = 1109
More Stand Alone Equipment = 1109
More Connectivity Among Terminals and Computers = 1109
Equipment Mobility = 1109
Virtual Simultaneous Input = 1109
Graphic, Number, Written, and Oral Capacity = 1109
Rapid Obsolescence = 1109
Summary of Technical Feasibility = 1109
52.4 Space Planning Implication of Office Automation = 1109
Redistribution of Space : Smaller and Larger Personal Work Areas = 1110
Multiple Work Areas = 1110
More Focus on Shared Meeting and social Spaces = 1110
More Amenities = 1111
More Group／Project Spaces = 1111
More Emphasis on Personnel Safety = 1111
Loose versus Tight Fit = 1111
52.5 Organizational Constraints : The Acceptability Program = 1112
Assumptions About How Space is Structured = 1112
Assumptions About Peer Relationships and Interaction Patterns = 1112
Assumptions about Turf and Privacy = 1113
Summary of Organizational Implications = 1114
52.6 Integrating Technology, Design, and Organizational Innovation = 1114
A Case Study = 1114
52.7 The Acceptability Factor and the Enculturation Process = 1116
52.8 Acknowledgments = 1116
52.9 References = 1117
Author Index = 1119
Subject Index = 1149
