CONTENTS
List of Symbols = xvi
1 INTRODUCTION = 1
1.1 Historical Perspective = 2
1.2 Materials Science and Engineering = 2
1.3 Classification of Materials = 3
1.4 Modern Materials Needs = 5
2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND INTERATOMIC BONDING = 7
2.1 Introduction = 8
ATOMIC STRUCTURE = 8
2.2 Fundamental Concepts = 8
2.3 Electrons in Atoms = 9
2.4 The Periodic Table = 15
ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS = 16
2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies = 16
2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds = 18
2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding = 22
2.8 Molecules = 24
Summary = 24
Important Terms and Concepts = 25
References = 25
Questions and Problems = 25
3 THE STRUCTURE OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS = 29
3.1 Introduction = 30
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES = 30
3.2 Fundamental Concepts = 30
3.3 Unit Cells = 30
3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures = 31
3.5 Density Computations = 36
3.6 Polymorphism and Allotropy = 36
3.7 Crystal Systems = 37
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTIONS AND PLANES = 37
3.8 Crystallographic Directions = 39
3.9 Crystallographic Planes = 42
3.10 Linear and Planar Atomic Densities = 46
3.11 Close-Packed Crystal Structures = 47
CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS = 49
3.12 Single Crystals = 49
3.13 Polycrystalline Materials = 50
3.14 Anisotropy = 50
3.15 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures = 52
3.16 Noncrystalline Solids = 57
Summary = 57
Important Terms and Concepts = 58
References = 58
Questions and Problems = 59
4 IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS = 67
4.1 Introduction = 68
POINT DEFECTS = 68
4.2 Vacancies and Self-Interstitials = 68
4.3 Impurities in Solids = 70
MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS = 72
4.4 Dislocations-Linear Defects = 72
4.5 Interfacial Defects = 76
4.6 Bulk or Volume Defects = 79
4.7 Atomic Vibrations = 79
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION = 80
4.8 General = 80
4.9 Microscopy = 81
4.10 Grain Size Determination = 84
Summary = 85
Important Terms and Concepts = 86
References = 86
Questions and Problems = 86
5 DIFFUSION = 89
5.1 Introduction = 90
5.2 Diffusion Mechanisms = 91
5.3 Steady-State Diffusion = 92
5.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion = 94
5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion = 98
5.6 Other Diffusion Paths = 100
5.7 Materials Processing and Diffusion = 100
Summary = 101
Important Terms and Concepts = 101
References = 101
Questions and Problems = 101
6 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS = 106
6.1 Introduction = 107
6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain = 107
ELASTIC DEFORMATION = 111
6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior = 111
6.4 Anelasticity = 113
6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials = 115
PLASTIC DEFORMATION = 117
6.6 Tensile Properties = 118
6.7 True Stress and Strain = 124
6.8 Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation = 127
6.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation = 128
6.10 Hardness = 128
6.11 Variability of Material Properties = 132
6.12 Safety Factors = 136
Summary = 137
Important Terms and Concepts = 138
References = 138
Questions and Problems = 138
7 DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS = 148
7.1 Introduction = 149
DISLOCATIONS AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION = 149
7.2 Basic Concepts = 149
7.3 Characteristics of Dislocations = 151
7.4 Slip Systems = 153
7.5 Slip in Single Crystals = 155
7.6 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials = 158
7.7 Deformation by Twinning = 159
MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING IN METALS = 160
7.8 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction = 161
7.9 Solid-Solution Hardening = 163
7.10 Strain Hardening = 165
RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN GROWTH = 168
7.11 Recovery = 168
7.12 Recrystallization = 169
7.13 Grain Growth = 173
Summary = 175
Important Terms and Concepts = 175
References = 175
Questions and Problems = 176
8 FAILURE = 181
8.1 Introduction = 182
FRACTURE = 182
8.2 Fundamentals of Fracture = 182
8.3 Ductile Fracture = 183
8.4 Brittle Fracture = 185
8.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics = 188
8.6 Impact Fracture Testing = 197
FATIGUE = 201
8.7 Cyclic Stresses = 201
8.8 The S-N Curve = 203
8.9 Crack Initiation and Propagation = 206
8.10 Crack Propagation Rate = 209
8.11 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life = 215
8.12 Environmental Effects = 217
CREEP = 218
8.13 Generalized Creep Behavior = 218
8.14 Stress and Temperature Effects = 219
8.15 Data Extrapolation Methods = 221
8.16 Alloys for High-Temperature Use = 223
Summary = 223
Important Terms and Concepts = 226
References = 226
Questions and Problems = 226
9 PHASE DIAGRAMS = 236
9.1 Introduction = 237
DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS = 237
9.2 Solubility Limit = 237
9.3 Phases = 238
9.4 Microstructure = 239
9.5 Phase Equilibria = 239
EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAMS = 240
9.6 Binary Isomorphous Systems = 240
9.7 Binary Eutectic Systems = 249
9.8 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds = 260
9.9 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions = 260
9.10 Congruent Phase Transformations = 263
9.11 Ceramic and Ternary Phase Diagrams = 263
9.12 The Gibbs Phase Rule = 264
THE IRON-CARBON SYSTEM = 267
9.13 The Iron-Iron Carbide (Fe-Fe₃C) Phase Diagram = 267
9.14 Development of Microstructures in Iron-Carbon Alloys = 270
9.15 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements = 277
Summary = 278
Important Terms and Concepts = 279
References = 279
Questions and Problems = 280
10 PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS IN METALS: DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE AND ALTERATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES = 288
10.1 Introduction = 289
PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS = 289
10.2 Basic Concepts = 289
10.3 The Kinetics of Solid-State Reactions = 289
10.4 Multiphase Transformations = 291
MICROSTRUCTURAL AND PROPERTY CHANGES IN IRON-CARBON ALLOYS = 292
10.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams = 292
10.6 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams = 304
10.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron-Carbon Alloys = 307
10.8 Tempered Martensite = 312
10.9 Review of Phase Transformations for Iron-Carbon Alloys = 316
Summary = 316
Important Terms and Concepts = 317
References = 317
Questions and Problems = 317
11 THERMAL PROCESSING OF METAL ALLOYS = 324
11.1 Introduction = 325
ANNEALING PROCESSES = 325
11.2 Process Annealing = 325
11.3 Stress Relief = 325
11.4 Annealing of Ferrous Alloys = 326
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS = 327
11.5 Hardenability = 328
11.6 Influence of Quenching Medium, Specimen Size, and Geometry = 332
PRECIPITATION HARDENING = 336
11.7 Heat Treatments = 337
11.8 Mechanism of Hardening = 339
11.9 Miscellaneous Considerations = 342
Summary = 342
Important Terms and Concepts = 343
References = 343
Questions and Problems = 343
12 METALALLOYS = 347
12.1 Introduction = 348
FABRICATION OF METALS = 348
12.2 Forming Operations = 349
12.3 Casting = 351
12.4 Miscellaneous Techniques = 351
FERROUS ALLOYS = 352
12.5 Steels = 353
12.6 Cast Irons = 357
NONFERROUS ALLOYS = 364
12.7 Copper and Its Alloys = 364
12.8 Aluminum and Its Alloys = 366
12.9 Magnesium and Its Alloys = 368
12.10 Titanium and Its Alloys = 368
12.11 The Refractory Metals = 371
12.12 The Superalloys = 371
12.13 The Noble Metals = 371
12.14 Miscellaneous Nonferrous Alloys = 371
Summary = 372
Important Terms and Concepts = 373
References = 373
Questions and Problems = 373
13 STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS = 376
13.1 Introduction = 377
CERAMIC STRUCTURES = 377
13.2 Crystal Structures = 377
13.3 Silicate Ceramics = 387
13.4 Carbon = 391
13.5 Imperfections in Ceramics = 396
13.6 Ceramic Phase Diagrams = 399
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES = 403
13.7 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics = 403
13.8 Stress-Strain Behavior = 405
13.9 Mechanisms of Plastic Deformation = 407
13.10 Miscellaneous Mechanical Considerations = 408
Summary = 411
Important Terms and Concepts = 412
References = 412
Questions and Problems = 412
14 APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSING OF CERAMICS = 417
14.1 Introduction = 418
GLASSES = 418
14.2 Glass Properties = 420
14.3 Glass Forming = 421
14.4 Heat Treating Glasses = 423
14.5 Glass-Ceramics = 424
CLAY PRODUCTS = 425
14.6 The Characteristics of Clay = 425
14.7 Compositions of Clay Products = 426
14.8 Fabrication Techniques = 426
14.9 Drying and Firing = 428
REFRACTORIES = 430
14.10 Fireclay Refractories = 430
14.11 Silica Refractories = 431
14.12 Basic Refractories = 431
14.13 Special Refractories = 431
OTHER APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSING METHODS = 432
14.14 Abrasives = 432
14.15 Powder Pressing = 432
14.16 Cements = 435
14.17 Advanced Ceramics = 437
Summary = 440
Important Terms and Concepts = 440
References = 441
Questions and Problems = 441
15 POLYMER STRUCTURES = 444
15.1 Introduction = 445
15.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules = 445
15.3 Polymer Molecules = 447
15.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules = 448
15.5 Molecular Weight = 451
15.6 Molecular Shape = 454
15.7 Molecular Structure = 455
15.8 Molecular Configurations = 458
15.9 Copolymers = 460
15.10 Polymer Crystallinity = 461
15.11 Polymer Crystals = 464
Summary = 467
Important Terms and Concepts = 468
References = 468
Questions and Problems = 469
16 CHARACTERISTICS, APPLICATIONS, AND PROCESSING OF POLYMERS = 473
16.1 Introduction = 474
MECHANICAL AND THERMOMECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS = 474
16.2 Stress-Strain Behavior = 474
16.3 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers = 477
16.4 Melting and Glass Transition Phenomena = 479
16.5 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers = 482
16.6 Viscoelasticity = 483
16.7 Deformation of Elastomers = 488
16.8 Fracture of Polymers = 489
16.9 Miscellaneous Characteristics = 490
POLYMER APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSING = 491
16.10 Polymerization = 492
16.11 Polymer Additives = 494
16.12 Polymer Types = 495
16.13 Plastics = 495
16.14 Elastomers = 500
16.15 Fibers = 503
16.16 Miscellaneous Applications = 504
Summary = 505
Important Terms and Concepts = 506
References = 506
Questions and Problems = 507
17 COMPOSITES = 513
17.1 Introduction = 514
PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES = 515
17.2 Large-Particle Composites = 516
17.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites = 520
FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES = 521
17.4 Influence of Fiber Length = 521
17.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration = 523
17.6 The Fiber Phase = 529
17.7 The Matrix Phase = 531
17.8 Fiberglass-Reinforced Composites = 531
17.9 Miscellaneous Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Matrix Composites = 532
17.10 Metal Matrix-Fiber Composites = 533
17.11 Hybrid Composites = 533
17.12 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites = 534
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES = 537
17.13 Laminar Composites = 537
17.14 Sandwich Panels = 538
Summary = 539
Important Terms and Concepts = 540
References = 540
Questions and Problems = 541
18 CORROSION AND DEGRADATION OF MATERIALS = 546
18.1 Introduction = 547
CORROSION OF METALS = 547
18.2 Electrochemical Considerations = 547
18.3 Corrosion Rates = 554
18.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates = 556
18.5 Passivity = 564
18.6 Environmental Effects = 565
18.7 Forms of Corrosion = 566
18.8 Corrosion Environments = 573
18.9 Corrosion Prevention = 574
18.10 Oxidation = 576
CORROSION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS = 579
DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS = 580
18.11 Swelling and Dissolution = 580
18.12 Bond Rupture = 581
18.13 Weathering = 583
Summary = 583
Important Terms and Concepts = 584
References = 584
Questions and Problems = 585
19 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES = 590
19.1 Introduction = 591
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION = 591
19.2 Ohm's Law = 591
19.3 Electrical Conductivity = 591
19.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction = 592
19.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids = 593
19.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models = 595
19.7 Electron Mobility = 597
19.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals = 598
19.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys = 601
SEMICONDUCTIVITY = 602
19.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction = 602
19.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction = 604
19.12 The Temperature Variation of Conductivity and Carrier Concentration = 609
19.13 The Hall Effect = 613
19.14 Semiconductor Devices = 614
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN IONIC CERAMICS AND IN POLYMERS = 621
19.15 Conduction in Ionic Materials = 621
19.16 Electrical Properties of Polymers = 622
DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR = 623
19.17 Capacitance = 623
19.18 Field Vectors and Polarization = 624
19.19 Types of Polarization = 628
19.20 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant = 630
19.21 Dielectric Strength = 631
19.22 Dielectric Materials = 631
OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS = 632
19.23 Ferroelectricity = 632
19.24 Piezoelectricity = 633
Summary = 634
Important Terms and Concepts = 635
References = 635
Questions and Problems = 636
20 THERMAL PROPERTIES = 642
20.1 Introduction = 643
20.2 Heat Capacity = 643
20.3 Thermal Expansion = 646
20.4 Thermal Conductivity = 649
20.5 Thermal Stresses = 651
Summary = 653
Important Terms and Concepts = 654
References = 654
Questions and Problems = 655
21 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES = 659
21.1 Introduction = 660
21.2 Basic Concepts = 660
21.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism = 664
21.4 Ferromagnetism = 666
21.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism = 668
21.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior = 671
21.7 Domains and Hysteresis = 672
21.8 Soft Magnetic Materials = 675
21.9 Hard Magnetic Materials = 676
21.10 Magnetic Storage = 677
21.11 Superconductivity = 679
Summary = 683
Important Terms and Concepts = 684
References = 684
Questions and Problems = 684
22 OPTICAL PROPERTIES = 690
22.1 Introduction = 691
BASIC CONCEPTS = 691
22.2 Electromagnetic Radiation = 691
22.3 Light Interactions with Solids = 693
22.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions = 693
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS = 695
OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS = 696
22.5 Refraction = 696
22.6 Reflection = 697
22.7 Absorption = 698
22.8 Transmission = 701
22.9 Color = 701
22.10 Opacity and Translucency in Insulators = 703
APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL PHENOMENA = 704
22.11 Luminescence = 704
22.12 Photoconductivity = 705
22.13 Lasers = 705
Summary = 711
Important Terms and Concepts = 711
References = 712
Questions and Problems = 712
23 CASE STUDIES IN MATERIAIS SELECTION = 715
23.1 Introduction = 716
OPTIMIZATION OF STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS FOR A CYLINDRICAL CANTILEVER BEAM = 716
23.2 Stiffness = 716
23.3 Strength = 719
AUTOMOBILE VALVE SPRING = 721
23.4 Introduction = 721
23.5 Automobile Valve Spring = 723
ARTIFICIAL TOTAL HIP REPLACEMENT = 728
23.6 Anatomy of the Hip Joint = 728
23.7 Material Requirements = 730
23.9 Materials Employed = 732
THERMAL PROTECTION SYSTEM ON THE SPACE SHUTTLE ORBITER = 734
23.9 Introduction = 734
23.10 Thermal Protection System-Design Requirements = 735
23.11 Thermal Protection System-Components = 735
MATERIALS FOR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT PACKAGES = 740
23.12 Introduction = 740
23.13 Leadframe Design and Materials = 742
23.14 Die Bonding = 743
23.15 Wire Bonding = 746
23.16 Package Encapsulation = 748
23.17 Tape Automatic Bonding = 749
Summary = 751
References = 752
Questions and Problems = 753
Appendix A THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI) = 759
Appendix B ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS OF THE ELEMENTS = 761
Appendix C PROPERTIES OF SELECTED ENGINEERING MATERIALS = 765
Glossary = 772
Answers to Selected Problems = 788
Index = 793
